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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 



SUCCESSFUL 
TEACHING 



Fifteen Studies by Pradiical Teachers 
Prize- Winners in the National 
Educational Contest of 1905 

WITH AN INTRODUCTION 



JAMES M. GREENWOOD 

Superintendent of Schools in Kansas City, Mo., Author of'' The 

Principles oj Education Practically Applied,''' "^ History 

of Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, ''' etc. 




FUNK ^ WAGNALLS COMPANY 

NEW YORK AND LONDON 
1906 



ul, 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 


Two Cooies Received 


MAY 


4 1906 


A Copyright Entry ^ 
CLfSS CC XXc. No, 






Copyright, 1906, by 

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY 

[Printed in the United States of America] 

Published April, 1906 




PUBLISHERS' NOTE 

The essays embraced in this volume are the 
results of a contest initiated by the publishers 
in the spring of 1905. Cash prizes were offered 
for the best essays on the subjects named, all of 
which were to have close relation to modern 
methods in teaching, and in so far as possible 
were to be based on personal experience. Each 
essay was limited as to its length — in some in- 
stances to 2,000 words ; in a few others to 2,500. 

Responses came from all parts of the United 
States, the contestants being teachers in gram- 
mar and high schools, and in colleges and uni- 
versities, both male and female. Owing to the 
large number of essays submitted, considerable 
time was found necessary in making an adequate 
examination of them with a view to the awards. 
It was not until the beginning of 1906 that a 
final disposition was made of the whole series, 
and the prizes were awarded and the amounts 
paid. 

James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of 
Schools in Kansas City, Mo., was asked to read 
the essays and prepare for them an introduc- 
tion, giving such co-ordination and coherency 

5 



PUBLISHEES' NOTE 

to the whole subject of modern methods in teach- 
ing as, in his judgment, might properly be done 
in an article of moderate length, accompanying 
the essays. 

The book thus brought together is now offered 
to the public, in the expectation that teachers 
and others interested in the most advanced and 
successful methods will find the essays and Mr. 
Greenwood's introduction of exceptional inter- 
est and value. 



CONTENTS 



PAOB 

Publishers' Note 5 

Introduction . , 10 

BY JAMES M. GREENWOOD 

Personality as a Factor in Teaching 27 

BY H. MONTAGUE DONNER 

The Value of Psychology in Teaching ...... 39 

BY J. J. SHARPE 

How Best to Develop Character in Children .... 53 

BY EMILY S. LOUD 

How Best to Gain and Keep Control of Pupils ... 63 

BY A. J. GROUT 

How to Teach Children to Think 73 

BY AGNES C. RALPH 

Advantages of Memory Work 83 

BY W. C. HEWITT 

How Best to Teach Concentration 95 

BY KATE WALTON 

How to Develop the Conversational Powers of Pupils, 107 

BY FLORA ELMER 

The Place of Biography in General Education . . .117 

BY GEOFFREY F. MORGAN 

The Art of Story-Telling and Its Uses in the School 

Room 135 

BY MIZPAH S. GREENE 

Nature Studies : The Various Methods" of Teaching 

Nature 135 

BY CAROLINE C. LEIGHTON 

7 



CONTENTS 

PAOE 

The Teaching of Phonetics 149 

BY ZYLPHA EASTMAN 

The Value of Word Study and How to Direct it . . 157 

BY E. S. GERHARD 

The Educational Influence and Value of Manual Train- 
ing 173 

BY BURTON M. BALCH 

How Best to Acquaint Pupils with What is Going on 

intheYNTorld 187 

BY JOHN M. VAN DYKE 



8 



Introduction 

BY JAMES M. GREENWOOD 



INTRODUCTION 



THE OBJECT 



The essays in this volume are intended to 
help teachers in their daily work; to give them 
broader views of teaching certain subjects, bet- 
ter methods of presentation, and deeper insight 
into the thoughts, feelings, emotions, desires, 
passions, and aspirations of a developing human 
soul. 

Each essay sets forth in clear language the 
view of the author, and how in theory and 
practise a certain phase of educational work, 
either of subject-matter, or the underlying prin- 
ciples upon which it is based, may be used by 
the teacher, or practised by the child to further 
his progress. 

One of the chief benefits arising from thought- 
ful teaching is the grasp it gives the teacher 
over subject-matter, and in directing the ener- 
gies of the pupils. Thinking is hard work, and 
education is not a matter of chance, but a pur- 
poseful effort toward a direct end. It consists 

11 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

in what one can do, or is enabled to do, rather 
than what one is, or what one knows. Since 
education is a dynamic force, it implies skill 
to use what one possesses, — skill to use one's 
powers forcefully on new questions and situa- 
tions as they arise. The underlying fact in 
educational systems to-day is to perfect the 
state by perfecting the individuals composing 
the state through culture, knowledge, wisdom, 
— into doing one's life-work well. 

The science of education is founded on the 
hypothesis of a continuous period of growth. 
In this sense the human mind is a growth. In 
its working processes the mind is so constituted 
that in the act of acquiring knowledge by its 
own inherent energy, it thinks things or notions 
that are similar, into groups, while those having 
unlike or dissimilar properties are separated. As 
an illustration: — the pupil in analyzing a sen- 
tence in English Grammar, never literally sepa- 
rates the words, phrases, and clauses into essen- 
tial, subordinate, and connecting elements, but he 
thinks them as separated; but in handling ma- 
terial objects, a physical division frequently 
occurs. Herein lurks a possible danger, namely, 
that a pupil may be kept so long working with 
thing knowledge, that he loses the power to 
work with perceptions, conceptions, inferences, 

12 



INTRODUCTION 

and of drawing conclusions from data given, or 
to take hold of a complex problem or situation, 
and divide each difficulty into as many simple 
portions as possible in order to examine each 
separately, and to reach eventually a correct 
conclusion. 

This presupposes an orderly plan of investi- 
gation, beginning with the simplest and most 
obvious cases first, so that by easy steps one goes 
on building up a more complex whole, till all the 
parts are shaped into a symmetrical whole as 
constructed by the mind into a body of knowl- 
edge. Knowledge is thus built up in the mind 
into groups and masses, if it is to be of real 
value to the possessor. 

MEMORY CULTURE 

Not many years ago it became quite the fash- 
ion in many educational circles to decry mem- 
ory education in season and out of season. This 
opposition, like many other ideas that have 
swept over the country periodically, had some 
foundation in fact for its existence. The real 
objection, instead of a wholesale condemnation 
of memory as an important attribute of the 
human mind, should have been filed against 
the abuse or misuse of memory itself. 

13 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

A very brief analysis of the function of the 
memory will show what office it performs dur- 
ing the whole educative period. What the mind 
retains of all its former mental acts, states, and 
feelings as impressions received from the ex- 
ternal world, is the raw material out of which 
one constructs the real world in which he lives. 
To observe sensations, perceptions, and concep- 
tions, whether from the external or mental 
world, without the power of holding the knowl- 
edge thus gained, is to be a mental imbecile. 
Knowledge that is a momentary acquisition and 
then vanishes, is not knowledge in any sense, 
and the effect is precisely the same as if it had 
not been. 

The object that produces the perception, 
whether of internal or external origin, may be 
removed, but the recollection of it abides, and 
is an enduring possession of the mind which may 
be used at any time. Whether an impression is 
made in the mind lasts or fades away, is an 
index of the mind's retentiveness, or its power 
of holding impressions in solution after the pro- 
ducing causes have been removed. This power 
depends primarily on the condition of the brain 
centers and their modes of activity. The re- 
tentive memory is that form which produces 
past impressions whenever they are needed, and 
produces them accurately. 

U 



INTRODUCTION 

Many liold an opposite opinion and contend 
that the child is to observe and feel, but he is 
to commit nothing to memory except as he 
wishes. Were it possible for humanity to act 
on this principle of learning exclusively, all 
knowledge would be swept away. Even the 
learner would forget his own name, — he would 
not know mother, home, or any of those asso- 
ciations which make up the greater part of life. 
There would be no data whatever for the mind 
to reason upon. Fixed or stored-up informa- 
tion would nowhere be found. All that could 
be possible under such limitations would be in- 
stantaneous impressions, vanishing as rapidly as 
they came. The memory acts as a sort of men- 
tal wheel-barrow for the transportation of ex- 
periences, but it is out of this gathered-up ma- 
terial that the mind, by virtue of its organizing 
and selective power, arranges and classifies its 
material. 

The whole sphere of reproductive knowledge 
answers in a general way to what is called mem- 
ory. To retain an impression of a thing is to 
remember it; to be able to reproduce a descrip- 
tion of it in words, or in a picture, owing to the 
accuracy or faithfulness with which it is exe- 
cuted, is a test of one's retentive and repro- 
ductive power. To take hold of an object of 

15 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

thought and make it a part of one's mental 
furniture by fusing it with knowledge already 
possessed, is the most important function of 
memory products. Before there can be repro- 
duction, there must be acquisition, and repeti- 
tion follows as the chief act in fixing knowledge 
after it has been once acquired. 

To understand and to control these agencies 
with the view of getting the most substantial 
and abiding results in definite knowledge, should 
be the chief aim of teachers in directing the 
learner in the pursuit of truth, or the harmony 
of thought with its object. For knowledge to be 
lasting, the impression must be clear-cut and 
deep, and properly attended to at the time. 
Memory being preeminently the storage power 
of the mind, and perhaps most active in child- 
hood and early youth, during this plastic period 
memory processes are the easiest, — hence truths, 
elegant and soul-inspiring extracts, principles 
and definite facts, should be fixed in the mem- 
ory forever. Any system of education which 
depreciates the proper use of the memory in 
the acquisition and retention of knowledge, is 
to misconceive entirely the proper function of 
the mind itself. 

In answer to the inquiry — what constitutes a 
good memory? the following characteristics, at 

16 



INTRODUCTION 

least, may be mentioned: First, quickness in 
applying the mind to a subject, and excluding 
all other subjects, in gaining knowledge; sec- 
ond, a good grip on what is once learned and 
retaining it ; third, readiness in recalling exactly 
what has been learned, said, or done, and the 
ability to use it whenever it is needed. If edu- 
cation be the preparation for complete living, 
then a good memory of facts and principles is 
of great value. 

The child needs to be guided by successive 
steps to right conclusions, not only about the 
things he learns from books and his own exper- 
iences, but to hold in check a tendency in some 
minds to give answers impulsively without hav- 
ing first thought them out, step by step, till a 
right conclusion is reached. Thinking should 
not be regarded as an objectionable process, 
even by children. A lack of patience to take 
hold of a problem and proceed with its investi- 
gation patiently, is one of the strongest evi- 
dences of the shallow training in too many of 
our schools. Education, then, in the final analy- 
sis, consists in training the pupil into right 
habits of thinking, acting, and sticking to a 
thing when one starts in with it, till the end is 
reached. 



17 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

SELF-CONTROL 

There is a wide diversity of opinion on the 
question of self-control of children, and to what 
extent it should be exercised over them. One 
idea is that it should be developed or impressed 
by unquestioning submission to parental or 
school authority; another is that un trammeled 
spontaneity is nature's method of teaching the 
necessity of self-control. Public opinion at home 
and in the school-room ranges over this wide 
area indicated. 

There is something in the sturdiness of the 
Scotch character that challenges the admiration 
of all thinking men and women in this country. 
Unswerving adherence to a principle has been 
a marked characteristic of that people. The 
moral education instilled into their children 
made them strong, but sometimes very narrow. 
The lad is governed by the iron-will of the 
father. His dread of disobedience gradually 
develops into a warm veneration for the ma- 
jesty of the law. The subordination to human 
law rises into a devout religious feeling, — the 
solid basis of the Scotch individual and national 
character, which places law against license, and 
recognizes the power of the Omnipotent as the 
highest expression of justice. 

18 



INTRODUCTION 

No one will deny that there is power in such 
discipline, and that it was this sturdy element 
in our New England ancestry that permeated 
so thoroughly the character of the American 
people. But another conception has grown up 
in many American homes of recent years in 
favor of the free spontaneity of childhood, — 
minus parental control. Uncontrolled impulses 
and desires too often mean moral and social 
anarchy. Children should be wisely controlled, 
for the wise and definite control by a superior 
will, developes the will-power of the child, and 
qualifies him to direct, in a large measure, his 
own will-power when he reaches maturity. 

The whole school training, as well as the home 
training, should be a preparation for self-con- 
trol. The child's will is not sufficient!}^ enlight- 
ened to guide his activities and control his pow- 
ers. Uncontrolled force leads to arrested de- 
velopment, a worn-out human remnant, or along 
a straight road into the human scrap-heap. Ev- 
ery conscious right act strengthens the child's 
will-power and self-control, and every wrong 
act weakens them. By degrees the external 
authority should be diminished till the young 
man or young woman has learned self-mastery ; 
but the final upshot of it all is, that he who 
violates a law inflicts the penalty on himself. 

19 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

NATURE STUDIES 

To teach a pupil how to see, how to hear, how 
to join his thoughts together, either in spoken 
or written discourse, and how to express them 
in fit language, covers a large sphere of school 
work. Nine-tenths of all his knowledge of na- 
ture comes through sight and hearing, and per- 
haps six per cent, through the sense of smell. 
Education is preeminently the science which 
should interpret how children grow, gain knowl- 
edge from books, people, nature, and how they 
assort and assimulate what they learn. Nature, 
as a teacher, is unsympathetic. She does not care 
whether the learner hurts himself or not. At 
no time does she anxiously interfere to prevent 
serious consequences that follow certain actions. 
Nature's instruction is self -instruction without 
any explanations. The child through his own 
experiences, if he keeps his eyes and ears at 
work, assisted by his parents, teachers, play- 
mates, finds out something about many things. 
Nature's teachings are also desultory. Lessons 
of all kinds are mingled in the greatest profu- 
sion as well as confusion. Her main business 
seems to be the training of powers rather than 
the logical acquisition of labeled knowledge. 
The child at six or seven is a bundle of all kinds 
of picked-up, unassorted knowledge. Owing to 

20 



INTRODUCTION 

the imperfect development of the special senses, 
nature's teachings to a particular child may be 
very defective, preventing a proper apprecia- 
tion of any subject — even to the total darkness 
of the undertaking. 

As much as ought to be undertaken with chil- 
dren in the elementary schools, is to teach them 
to see clearly and to describe accurately so far 
as any description may be necessary, whatever 
they see, hear, smell, taste, or feel. Such work 
should not be palmed off as science teaching. It 
is a simple preparation for real science which 
will come later. Nor is it just exactly the thing 
to do to transport the farm, including all that 
pertains to it, into the crowded city schools to 
teach these children scientific farming, stock-rais- 
ing, and gardening, than it would be for the 
country school-teacher to attempt to teach his 
pupils elaborate systems of banking, practiced 
in the great commercial centers. 

The country child learns much of the things 
he sees around him every day. He Is restricted 
in his environment, and yet he may get glimpses 
of city life, and the same is true of the city 
child's learning something of country life. The 
swing of the pendulum is on the wane in regard 
to Nature Study as compared with what it was 
a few years ago, and there is great danger of its 

21 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

swinging backward too far. The real place of 
nature study is as an adjunct to geography, his- 
tory, and the reading lessons in all grades, and 
it should be incidentally used to illustrate and 
enforce moral and industrial instruction in con- 
duct and character building. 

READING 

The teacher must keep in mind that the pupil 
is soon to help himself, and that he must become 
a self-reliant worker and interpreter of what he 
reads, and that words stand only for ideas, which 
he must get out of them. Hence the special 
work of the teacher is to draw out, stimulate, 
strengthen and develop the thinking powers of 
the pupil that he may interpret written thought 
for himself. Every lesson under the head of a 
skilful teacher should exercise all the intellectual 
faculties of the pupil. This is possible on the 
condition that the teacher prepares every lesson 
beforehand, and has studied it in all its bear- 
ings, and is ready to bring out all its striking 
points. 

In reading, the pupil should be instructed not 
only as to what is proper in interpretation and 
expression of a selection, but how he may cor- 
rect his own faults successfully, and to criticise 

22 



INTRODUCTION 

and avoid the faults of others. The thought 
element involves two phases, the thought of the 
author and the interpretation of this thought 
as understood by the reader. This is an im- 
portant distinction. As preparatory to the ex- 
pression of thought, it is assumed that the 
teacher has given due attention to the physiolog- 
ical conditions of breathing, position, and move- 
ments of the body, and has a complete and ac- 
curate mastery of all the sounds of the letters 
of our language. Thought is expressed by utter- 
ance and action in reading and speaking. Voice 
is sound produced by the passage of air through 
the vocal organs. In every sound of the voice 
there are certain attributes that are always pres- 
ent. They are technically called, — Form, Qual- 
ity, Force, Stress, Pitch, and Movement. 

There are three varieties of Form; six of 
Quality; four of Force; five of Stress; five of 
Pitch; and five of Movement, making twenty- 
eight in all. While it is remembered that these 
six attributes are always present in the utter- 
ance of every sentence, certainly a fine oppor- 
tunity is afforded for the exercise of judgment 
in every reading lesson, to-wit : attention, analy- 
sis, comparison, identification, discrimination, 
classification, and synthesis. 

It will be observed that not only the thought 

23 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

element in the selection demands attention, but 
that the expression also takes equal rank with 
it. The first element asks the question, *'What 
does it meanf The second, "How is it to be 
expressed?" The third, ''Can I express it?" 

While it is not desirable to employ these for- 
mal terms in the lowest grades of reading classes, 
nevertheless the principles should be practised, 
and the pupils taught to use their own powers 
in applying them. The pupil must be taught 
to read so as to be heard, understood, and felt. 

Reading is the most difficult branch in the 
course of study to teach properly, and it is in 
this subject that the best opportunity offers for 
the highest forms of artistic teaching. 

THE TEACHER IN ACTION 

Teachers must have clear conceptions of the 
school and of its functions; otherwise, they 
work at random. 

The work of the teacher is narrowed to two 
sharp divisions, — Thought and the expression of 
thought, and to two kinds of facts — facts of 
nature and facts of mind. Broadly stated, all 
education has to do either with the development 
of thought or the expression of thought. They 
are radically different. It is the province of 

24 



INTRODUCTION 

the teacher to know this difference and to note 
defects of either kind if existing in any pupil, 
and how to apply the proper remedy. They 
are essentially different in nature, character, 
and mode of development. Thought relations 
are frequently seized intuitively. Careful ex- 
pression is of slower growth. The painter works 
out his ideal long before he puts it on canvas ; so 
of the sculptor, the architect in his building, 
the composer in the song, and the orator in his 
speech. By patient work, now here, now there, 
the great artists have produced their master- 
pieces. The idea realized in expression is the 
highest stroke of genius. 

Hamilton says, — * * all thought is comparison — 
a recognition of similarity or difference; a con- 
injunction, or disjunction; in other words a 
synthesis or an analysis — of its objects." 

To think, then, is to bring together two ideas 
and compare them; note their agreements and 
differences. A thing is known only by compar- 
ing it with the idea already in mind. Compar- 
ison is the standard by which the pupil discerns 
likenesses and differences. The standard of 
comparison is kept in the mind as a measuring 
rule. By it, Jacotot was enabled to enounce 
his dictum: ^' Learn one thing thoroughly, and 
compare everything else with if 

25 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

Expression depends upon the arresting of 
thought. It is the power to hold a thought in 
the mind and dwell upon it to the exclusion of 
other thoughts, and to describe it with clearness 
and accuracy. This quality is clearly in oppo- 
sition to vanishing thought. Opposition is a 
development, and is an element often overlooked 
in mental culture. Life, culture, custom, civil- 
ization, yea, revolutions, are so many struggles 
and triumphs against oppositions. 

As the teacher's ideals are, so will the school 
be. Low ideals produce poor schools, and just 
in proportion as the teacher's notion of what 
good teaching is, will the school improve or de- 
generate in quality. If the teaching has the 
thr6e qualities — of vitality, richness, and sta- 
bility — there is a great teacher and it will be 
a great school. 

Kansas City, Missouri, 

February 10, 1906. 



26 



Personality as a Factor in 
Teaching 

BY H. MONTAGUE DONNER 



PERSONALITY AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 

No OTHER calling or trade, I venture to assert, 
shows us its devotees so little amenable to the 
exigencies of hard and fast rules, as the profes- 
sion of teaching: in no walk of life are the re- 
quirements of success so difficult of adjustment 
to the strict limits of axiom and dogmas. 

That this is of necessity so is due to the fact 
that the successful educator, more than other 
men, attains his ends as much through uncon- 
scious influence as by conscious effort; in fact, 
this unconscious influence is wider in its scope 
and more far-reaching in its effects, if not more 
immediate in its working, upon the pupils com- 
ing under its subtle sway, than all the accom- 
panying visible and systematic labor on the part 
of the teacher. 

Of late years it has in many quarters come 
to be more or less of an accepted doctrine that 
in order to secure good and durable results from 
the pupil, his work must primarily be made in- 
teresting to him: a theory the exact applicaton 
of which has formed a bone of contention for 
many years past between the disciples of rival 
schools of educational thought. But amid all 

29 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

the conflicting views as to the proper propor- 
tion of interest to be fostered as a rival incen- 
tive to the sense of duty or of necessity in the 
pursuit of knowledge, it has gradually come to 
be recognized that, after all, the most effective 
means of creating or of maintaining such inter- 
est abides in the personality of the instructor. 

And when we trj^ to gain a clear conception 
of this insidious and subtle influence, this mys- 
terious something, this elusive quality, that we 
call personality, whose potency is more readily 
felt than easily expressed in set terms of speech, 
we are conscious of no little difficulty in seizing 
upon its constituent element-^. 

Yet, elusive tho it be, define it we must in more 
or less conclusive terms, if we are to come to an 
even partially adequate understanding of the 
real, the vital importance of this prime factor 
in educational dynamics. 

To begin with, we can, of course, define per- 
sonality as the sum of the attributes of mind 
and character that go to distinguish one indi- 
vidual from others of his class or station. That, 
however, is merely to take a dictionary defini- 
tion, which will not help us in our consideration 
of the educational problem with which we are 
concerned. It is not definition we are in search 
of so much as it is comprehension: we must 

30 



PERSONALITY AS A FACTOR 

take up our psychic scalpel, so to speak, and 
dissect and analyze carefully the various quali- 
ties or attributes that go to compose the indi- 
viduality of him who deserves to be called a 
successful educator. Then, and then only, will 
it become manifest how paramount a factor in- 
dividuality is in its influence over the immature 
minds with which it comes into daily intimate 
contact. 

Our analysis will serve to show in the first 
place two great component qualities in such a 
personality: character and culture, in one or 
other of which all attributes will be found to 
inhere. First, as to character. This, the com- 
bined impress of nature and of habit through 
the continuous exercise of moral qualities, the 
sign manual of habitual uprightness of thought 
and action, manifests itself more particularly 
in the teacher in a stern sense of duty and of 
justice, in impartiality, in a mingling of firm- 
ness and gentleness, in an unwavering rebuke 
of all deceitful or slothful tendencies, in com- 
bination with a ready sympathy for the trials 
and diificulties of his young charges — in sum, 
in a high, abiding sense of responsibility. 

Secondly, as to culture. Character of the 
highest stamp is lamentably rare, and so, it 
would seem, is true culture in this center of 

31 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

rabid materialism in which we live and move — • 
far too rare, even, in that profession where, 
next to that of the minister of religion, it ought 
to be most widely disseminated. For into cul- 
ture there enters much more than mere mas- 
tery of intellectual accomplishments; more 
than painstaking perfection in one or two 
branches of scholastic study; something beyond 
the ability to impart information or knowledge, 
however skilfully and thoroughly ; viz. : wide 
reading on a variety of topics in the worlds of 
art and letters; a consequent command of one's 
native tongue not only beyond the circumscribed 
uses of the school-room, but superior to the lim- 
its of slang and the shop-worn language of mart 
and ledger; an active interest in the doings of 
the world at large, entailing some acquaintance 
with men and women of note in other spheres 
of life ; and with all these things an enthusiasm 
in one^s profession that would seek the applica- 
tion, in some form or other, of these varied in- 
terests to the work of the school, so as to keep 
the latter vital and productive of results. The 
sum of all which is the cultivation, not solely 
of the intellect, but of the imagination and of 
the taste in the direction both of refinement and 
catholicity — the development and enlightenment 
of the mind and the training of manners. 

32 



PERSONALITY AS A FACTOR 

How few teachers, alas! measure up to the 
full requirements of this high standard, in which 
the gentleman (or gentlewoman) and the pub- 
lic-spirited citizen are as much in evidence as 
the pedagog, any one of whom has made a study 
of our vaunted school system must be fully 
aware. Where such a condition of affairs pre- 
vails it is surely just to hold responsible for it 
less the teachers themselves than the system that 
evolves them — a system wherein all the stress 
is laid upon mere scholarship, as gaged by the 
ability to pass written examinations, so that 
the column of percentages becomes the sole 
measure of a candidate 's worth ; a system where 
a college degree tends more and more to become 
the shibboleth of initiation into the ranks of the 
elect; a system that, when the successful candi- 
date has become the full-fledged teacher, persists 
in regarding him in the light, not so much of 
an adult man of brains and self-reliance, as of 
a grown-up school-boy, who must continue to 
be marked under a score of different heads by 
the arch-pedagog and his aides in the seats 
of power. 

Who among us has not been made familiar 
with such a system, by means of which individ- 
ual initiative is discouraged and enthusiasm 
crushed? Is it not true that in such a system 

33 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

the test of the teacher's fitness is held to be the 
ability to force the largest possible percentage 
of pupils through the yearly and half-yearly 
examinations, and this despite the fact that he 
is called upon to heed a multitude of petty reg- 
ulations in and out of the class-room, and to at- 
tend to a host of clercial duties? The essential, 
the vital, in the educative process is then in- 
evitably subordinated to the mechanical ; instruc- 
tion is degraded into mere cramming, the TJltima- 
Thule of which is the desert isle of final exam- 
ination, whereon the fatal percentage tree, the 
cynosure of teachers' and pupils' straining eyes 
alike, exhales noxious vapors like those of the 
fabled upas, deadening the faculties of the un- 
fortunates that come within its baleful shade. 

Surely, of all factors capable of effectively 
combating the deadly workings of this mechan- 
ical process of drill and cram so mistakenly dig- 
nified by the name of education, the most potent 
is to be looked for in the personality of the 
teacher. Consequently, I take it, it can scarcely 
be denied that any system which fails, in its 
scheme for the training of teachers, to lay due 
emphasis on the cultivation of those qualities of 
mind and spirit that distinguish the thinker and 
the planner from the mere animated machine, 
and so assure the evolution of the type of per- 

34 



PERSONALITY AS A FACTOR 

sonality that I have sought to describe — which, 
in other words, fails to elevate teaching into 
the rank of a profession instead of the "sorriest 
of trades, ' ' is hopelessly, fundamentally, at fault, 
and needs to be born again. 

For, while method in teaching, which every 
normal school or teachers' training college bends 
its energies to perfecting, is, of course, essential, 
it is only a step in advance of the aimless, des- 
ultory fashion of instruction which it is de- 
signed to supplant, and will not in itself alone 
be productive of the highest results, in the 
achievement of which the human, the personal 
element must enter. The minister, the actor, 
and the public orator sway their audiences by 
the unconscious magnetism of their personal 
power, and in the domain of statecraft it is be- 
coming more and more an accepted truth that 
righteous government is less a matter of meas- 
ures than of men. 

In this connection, therefore, it may be well 
to call in mind an estimate, made by a contem- 
porary, of one of the greatest educators of mod- 
ern times, one who was essentially a man of 
practise, of action, rather than of theories. Says 
Dean Stanley, in his "Life of Thomas Arnold," 
the famous head-master of Rugby : ' ' He was dis- 
tinctively a practical man, an empiric of the 

35 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

best kind. He was governed by two main prin- 
ciples. As a trainer of character, he aimed to 
make his pupils Christian gentlemen; as a 
trainer of mind, to make them think." And in 
another place : ' ' But whatever interest attaches 
to the more external circumstances of his ad- 
ministration, and to his relations with others 
who were concerned in it, is, of course, centered 
in his own personal government of the boys. 
. . It was not the master who was beloved 
or disliked for the sake of the school, but the 
school which was beloved or disliked for the 
sake of the master. Whatever peculiarity of 
character was impressed on the scholars whom 
it sent forth, was derived, not from the genius 
of the place, but from the genius of the man. 
Throughout, whether in the school itself or in 
its after effects, the one image that we have be- 
fore us is not Rugby, but Arnold." 

There, indeed, are we confronted with a bril- 
liant example of the triumph of personality. 
We are thus led back to my starting point : that 
the true object of all education is to produce, 
not so much scholars as men — or mothers of men, 
as the case may be — and in the recognition of 
this fact depends the future welfare of our state. 
Now, in none of the provinces of man's activity 
that I have hereinbefore mentioned, save in the 

36 



PERSONALITY AS A FACTOR 

case of the physician, is the personal relation so 
close as between teacher and pupil, and for every- 
one person with whom the medical adviser comes 
into occasional intimate touch there are a dozen 
or a score of youthful minds in daily familiar 
contact with their instructor. A wealth of per- 
sonal association is inwoven in the very web and 
woof of every subject the pupils study with him, 
and is ever thereafter inseparably active in what- 
ever bearing such study has upon the problems 
of those students ' lives. Thus, it is not too much 
to say that the teacher becomes in a very real 
sense a part of his pupils' life, and the influence 
of the educator who has a full realization of this 
momentous fact may be almost immeasurable in 
the formation of the character of his youthful 
charges, all the more so from the very fact of 
such influence being so unobtrusive, almost un- 
conscious, in its daily, perhaps hourly, working. 
Scholarship, however thorough, as the sole equip- 
ment of the teacher, will not bring about this 
result. The bearing, the manners, the personal 
appearance, the choice of language, nay, the 
ver>^ inflection of the voice, become so many 
silent but deep channels of the spiritual sea 
whose waters shall gently overflow the virgin 
soil of a thousand unsophistocated natures, and 
fructify it to bear, through the successive sea- 

37 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

sons of an honored life, a rich growth of the 
fruits, not only of the intellect, but of the heart 
and soul. 

And the teacher who lives to see some part of 
such fruition of his sincere efforts and ideals, 
may indeed feel that he has won the dearest 
reward in life, conscious, with an ineffable in- 
ward glow, that generations to come will arise 
and call him blessed. 



38 



The Value of Psychology in 
Teaching 



BY J. J. SHARP 



THE VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN TEACHING 

The success of any man in dealing with his 
fellows depends largely upon his knowledge of 
human nature. Experience and observation 
show that seven-eighths of one's knowledge of 
human nature consists of a knowledge of the 
capabilities and modes of activity of the human 
mind. The lawyer, physician, and clergyman 
alike, prove by their life-work the truth of these 
propositions. For, he who unravels successfully 
legal cases and wins verdicts, needs to know the 
facts of the mind and the laws according to 
which it acts and grows; he who deals success- 
fully with bodily disease and weakness, must 
consider the preponderating influence which the 
mind wields over the body; and he who makes 
men holy and ministers to their spiritual wants, 
needs to know the laws of human thought and 
the use of arguments and motives. 

But more than all others who deal with hu- 
man nature, the teacher must know the laws of 
the mind's activity and the resulting processes 
for its guidance and growth. For it is the special 
work of the teacher to lead his pupils to know 
and to train them into right habits of thought 

41 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

and action. How can he do this unless he un- 
derstands the process by which the mind comes 
to know, and the process by which growth in 
right habits is secured? It is not enough for 
the teacher to know well the subjects to be 
taught, but, in addition to this, he must be able 
so to impart his knowledge as to arouse self -ac- 
tivity on the part of his pupils and induce 
growth. Very much of the poor work charge- 
able to the teaching profession is done by teach- 
ers who study the book and not the boy. As 
well expect good teaching under such circum- 
stances as good music from a player who knows 
only the tunes to be played and not the instru- 
ment itself. But, to pursue the figure still far- 
ther, the school-room may be said to contain, 
ordinarily, a large number of musical instru- 
ments, each of which differs greatly from the 
others, on the first day of school, and grows 
daily into an instrument quite different from 
what it was the day before. To play on all these 
instruments and produce sweet, melodious music, 
without discord, is an Herculean task, and cer- 
tainly calls for a knowledge both of the instru- 
ments and the tones to be produced. One might 
as well claim that a knowledge of the functions 
of the tooth is of no value to the dentist, or that 
a knowledge of the qualities of lumber is of no 

42 



VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY 

value to the carpenter, as that a knowledge of 
the laws of the mind's activity is of no value to 
the teacher. 

From the cradle to the grave, life is a succes- 
sion of distinct stages. A study of these stages 
throws light on human nature, and gives a mean- 
ing to every look and action of the individual. 
It is useless to expect a person at one period to 
perform the functions of another period. For 
instance, at one stage the child's memory pow- 
ers are on top ; there is little or no reasoning at 
seven, eight or nine ; abstract mathematics is out 
of the question then, but give the child history. 
It is economical to let education follow these 
periods. 

The stages of most interest to the teacher evi- 
dently are childhood and adolescence. The for- 
mer is distinguished by imagination and mem- 
ory; the latter, by thinking and reason. 

During the period of childhood the boy or 
girl enters school for the first time as a begin- 
ner, and receives impressions which are apt to 
be lasting. His or her whole future may hinge 
on those impressions. With greatest care and 
tact should teacher and parent proceed in lay- 
ing the foundation stones, if the superstructure 
of future development is to be built with surety 
of success. 

43 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

The phenomenal activity of childhood, so 
noticeable in the average boy and girl, is a di- 
rect result of the rapid growth of the body and 
brain. Every primary teacher is familiar with 
the exceeding restlessness of the first grade pu- 
pils. Indeed, there seems to be no such thing 
for them as standing or sitting still. They are 
irritable if confined, joyous if active. Wisely 
Nature ordained activity as an outlet for the 
child's superabundant energy, and the teacher 
who tries to suppress or restrain the child when 
Nature insists that it shall be free, not only in- 
jures the child but commits a crime against rea- 
son and sense. The child has a right to play 
by inheritance, and it is both wrong and cruel 
to deprive him of this legacy which has de- 
scended to him from time immemorable. He is 
a child that he might play, he doesn't play be- 
cause he is a child. 

One very noticeable feature about the activ- 
ity of childhood is the exercise of the larger 
muscles which it invariably involves. The move- 
ments are of the whole body, and not of mere 
portions of it. The fundamental muscles, and 
not the delicate and finely co-ordinated muscles, 
are employed in all the movements. Such mus- 
cles as are engaged in fine writing, drawing and 
sewing, are developed later. Especially is this 

44 



VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY 

true of the muscles of the eye. Ignorance of 
these facts has led to mistakes in training, chorea 
and other nervous disorders have been traced 
frequently to fine sewing and stick-laying in 
kindergarten work. The wise teacher will not 
compel or permit his young pupils to follow a 
fine copy in writing, but will encourage them 
to use the blackboard, where abundant oppor- 
tunity will be given for exercising the larger 
muscles. For years, near-sightedness has been 
held to be inherited, but a close observation of 
myopia in children reveals the fact that this 
defect increases after the age of five, thus dis- 
proving the theory of heredity, and suggesting 
a plausible cause in the too close reading and 
visualization of early childhood. The visual 
interests of this period are for concrete things. 
The eye demands pictures, — pictures of real life 
and objects. This is exercise to the eye, and a 
proper form of activity. 

Childhood has been called the language peri- 
od par excellence, but this statement has ref- 
erence to oral, and not written, forms of speech. 
Every teacher knows how easily and rapidly the 
child acquires a vocabulary at this stage. He 
learns language by imitation, and the whole 
epoch of childhood is, as psychology teaches and 
as William Wordsworth expresses it, ''One end- 

45 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

less imitation. ' ' It therefore behooves the teacher 
to neglect, if anything, reading and writing dur- 
ing the early stage of childhood, and make play- 
ing and story-telling the emphatic work in the 
years preceding eight. Why not let the child 
live in a world of sonorous speech, and hear and 
talk for himself each day ? A proper regard for 
the future usefulness of the eyes of the child 
certainly requires that a departure be made from 
the method now prevalent of requiring a large 
number of essays and written compositions 
which appeal only to new and undeveloped pow- 
ers of nerve and muscle. A realizing sense of 
the true nature of the child, as revealed by 
observation and experience, suggests a postpone- 
ment of written language-work and fine read- 
ing until a time when the finer eye muscles are 
properly developed and able to bear the work. 
We pass now to consider that period in which 
there exists a marked difference between the two 
sexes. To this period we have assigned the name 
of adolescence. Prior to this time there was no 
radical difference between the relative abilities 
of the boy and girl. Now, however, the girl de- 
velops faster than the boy, and therefore pos- 
sesses less mental acuity. Later on, the boy 
forges ahead, physically, and for several years 
his intellectual faculties lag. These differences 

46 



VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY 

make it difficult properly to arrange a course of 
study. 

The physical changes of this period are famil- 
iar to all. The heart enlarges, and the arteries 
increase one-third. This large increase of the 
circulation seems even greater than is necessary 
to supply the extra nutrition for the rapidly 
growing bodily organs, and, as a result, there is 
a superabundance of energy which must have 
an outlet. The finding out of this outlet should 
be the particular care of the teacher, because, if 
left undirected, the outlet chosen is wholly the 
result of chance. 

That this is an awkward age is well known. 
An adolescent will fall over a chair rather than 
walk around it. The growth of the muscles and 
nerves is faster than their organization, and 
this, coupled with the unsettled condition of the 
brain and muscles, produces a lack of coordina- 
tion and thereby a want of self-control. Self- 
consciousness, blushing, and a desire to show 
off, are present as distinct adolescent phenom- 
ena. Laboring under the spell of mental storm 
and stress, the youth possesses an intense long- 
ing to do battle for himself, and craves to reap 
a harvest without having sown. Old interests 
die and new ones are born. He runs away from 
home, so great is his desire to see the world for 

47 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

himself. Crime increases during this period, 
and most religious conversions occur. 

''The hope of truth grows stronger .day by day; 
I hear the soul of Man around me waking. 
Like a great sea, its frozen fetters breaking, 
And flinging up to Heaven its sunlit spray. 

And every hour new signs of promise tell 
That the great soul shall once again be free, 
For high, and yet more high, the murmurs swell 
Of inward strife for strife and liberty.'^ 

— Lowell, Sub Pondere Crescit. 

The grand pedagogical aim should be to util- 
ize the tempestuous emotions of adolescence. The 
teacher should balance undue ambition by seri- 
ous study. Adolescents require activity. There 
must be an outlet somewhere. The aim should 
always be to drift the energy off into healthful 
channels. Otherwise the same will be lost, or 
worse than lost. In some instances activity is 
the surest safeguard against suicide. In every 
case, if rightly employed, it is a saving of en- 
ergy. It is a mistake to demand too much work 
now while the physical organs are developing. 
It is well to be sympathetic rather than swift 
in punishment. Every high-school teacher 
knows that any course which is not based on 
sympathy usually falls short of the mark. 



VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY 

Everj^ youth passes through these stages. If 
they are normal types, the period of adolescence 
will come from 14 to 25 in the case of boys, and 
from 12 to 21 in the case of girls. Should the 
vitality be sapped by overwork or otherwise, the 
stage may be retarded several years, but come 
it surely will if the individual lives. 

A study of the psychology of childhood is an 
indispensable part of the preparation of every 
teacher in the lower grades, and a study of 
adolescence should form a part of the education 
of every teacher in the higher institutions. The 
subject should be studied scientifically from the 
standpoint of physiology and psychology. From 
what has been said of childhood and adolescence 
it ought to be obvious that before we can train 
the mind we must understand the psychology 
of the age which we are dealing with. Epochs 
count for much in education. 

Psychology teaches us to ascertain the moods 
of our pupils by a study of their bodies. The 
teacher who does this will find his vocation more 
congenial, the results of his labors brighter, and 
his pupils happier. A well developed chest in- 
dicates a mind unconscious of wrong doing, but 
once a sense of shame is felt, the chest falls, 
and a victory is gained for easy control. 
Fortunate, in truth and in fact, is that teacher 

49 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

who understands the body as the book of the 
soul! 

The teacher who is familiar with psychology 
is a better teacher, other things being equal, than 
one who knows nothing about it. There prob- 
ably never was a successful teacher who did not 
have a knowledge of the working principles of 
psychology and who did not apply those princi- 
ples in his teaching, no matter how crude that 
knowledge was, nor how crude the steps by 
which it was secured. 

Every teacher should study the minds of the 
children under his direction ; should understand 
the close relations which exist between mental 
and physical growth; should observe the mental 
and physical traits as manifested in the stage 
with which he deals. The teacher who does this 
will not make the blunder of giving mathematics 
in abstract form to a mere child; will not ex- 
pect the reasoning powers to be developed at 
six, seven, eight, or nine; but will appeal to the 
powers of imagination and memory which are 
then on top, by giving history, mythology, and 
stories of fable. The teacher who appreciates 
with some degree of intelligence the psychology 
of children, will not punish a child for being a 
child; he will not look with dread and alarm 
upon traits which are purely reversionary; for 

50 



VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY 

the student of psychology well knows that these 
traits will be outgrown normally and naturally 
when the time is ripe ; knows that the child will 
learn to walk when the brain centers controlling 
the apparatus of locomotion are ready, and not 
before; knows that the child will talk when the 
lingual muscles and nerves are ready, and not 
before ; knows that the boy or girl will begin to 
reason and think when the fibers of the brain 
and the modulation of the nerves are sufficiently 
established, and not before. When these vari- 
ous seasons arrive, and not before, is the proper 
time to exercise the child in the activities which 
are normal to those times. The teacher or par- 
ent who can relegate instruction and discipline to 
their proper epochs in the life of the child has 
the power, almost, of creation. 

Psychology is, then, in brief, a beacon-light 
illuminating the vast sea of pedagogy, disclos- 
ing the rocks and shoals, and making clear the 
course to be pursued. It is within the bounds 
of sense to say that it is the greatest study ever 
instituted and destined to realize the grand- 
est possibilities. It is to-day almost universally 
regarded as of the utmost importance in the 
preparation of the teacher, in arranging courses 
of study, in determining methods of instruction, 
and in deciding questions of discipline. 

51 



How Best to Develop Character 
in Children 

BY MRS. EMILY S. LOUD 



HOW BEST TO DEVELOP CHARACTER IN 
CHILDREN 

Character is that quality of moral force in- 
herent in an individual, which leads to a line of 
conduct conformable to that quality. Charac- 
ter is a positive, not a negative, virtue, and is 
developed through daily habits of self-disci- 
pline and high thinking, consciously and uncon- 
sciously practised from childhood. The man 
of character moves among his fellow men sur- 
rounded by an atmosphere of moral influence, 
of decided, but unobtrusive force, unless the 
occasion demands it, which makes itself felt 
wherever his duty may call him. It is to such 
men and women that individuals and communi- 
ties instinctively turn in times of stress, and it 
is such men and women that we would like our 
children to become. How shall we set about 
the work of making them such? 

There is much sentimental talk about the 
teacher having the child while its mind is as 
yet plastic, and that she can therefore mold 
her pupils as she pleases. It is on account of 
this often expressed sentiment, and a general 
expectation that schools should do even more 

55 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

than churches to better the morals of the peo- 
ple, that so much dissatisfaction is now being 
manifested, even by noted university profes- 
sors, at the seeming failure of the public schools 
as a moralizing force in the education of many 
of our prominent men. 

But the causes of the lack of public morality 
lie deeper than in our system of public-school 
teaching. I venture the assertion that there is 
no public school in our land where the teachers 
have not time and again, as opportunity pre- 
sented itself, urged the claims of moral obliga- 
tions upon the pupils under their charge. That 
there has not been more time spent in the 
schools in this work is owing to the constant 
pressure upon both teachers and pupils to *'get 
on" in the purely intellectual and commercial 
branches that crowd our courses of study, and 
which mark the educational standing of the 
teacher and her class. 

It is expecting superhuman wisdom of chil- 
dren to surround them outside of their schools 
with an atmosphere of frenzied greed for com- 
mercial gain, no matter how obtained, graft, 
public and private breaches of trust, and im- 
morality, and then expect to make of them the 
men and women you wish by saying to them, 
*'Do none of these things that our men promi- 

56 



TO DEVELOP CHARACTER 

nent in political and commercial life are doing, 
but be honest, trustworthy, clean, and moral." 

The teacher's opportunity lies in the fact 
that during the formative period of a child's 
character she is brought into closer relations 
with the child than are these outside influences. 
She must lay her foundations before he fully 
understands and takes to himself the evils that 
surround him. 

To do this, the teacher must herself contin- 
ually seek moral growth, and walk strictly and 
honestly in the path she wishes her pupils to 
walk. The children must see *'how righteous- 
ness looks when it is lived. ' ' No teacher unwil- 
ling to do this should take upon herself the 
sacred task of guiding the young. Then she 
should so train her pupils that they may know 
right from wrong, and thus know how to choose 
the right. 

Every teacher is presumably able to impart 
the technical knowledge of her profession. Her 
chief obligation then is to see that while doing 
this, under all and above all, she is inculcating 
those basic principles of right action that we 
call character. If from the outset she purposes 
this, each lesson, in whatever branch, will be 
one of a chain of links teaching obedience, self- 
control, thoroughness, and truthfulness. Many 

67 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

times daily the child performs these moral acts 
of obedience and self-control, and strict atten- 
tion should be paid as to how they are per- 
formed. It is not so much what a child learns, 
as what he actually does, that forms character. 

Every child should be taught accuracy even 
in his first lessons in number-making, spelling, 
and writing. It may seem an unnecessary 
strictness to oblige a child to be accurate in the 
small details of arranging his work orderly on 
paper or slate. But the teacher who allows 
slip-shod methods of work to pass through her 
hands, is aiding that child along- a slip-shod 
path of morality. Accept nothing but the 
best work of a pupil, and you are establishing 
a stable character, which will not only give the 
child a grip on material things, but will give 
the child a strength of character in ethical mat- 
ters as well. Teach the child that nothing is 
right that is not exactly right, and you are 
training him in a respectful observance of moral 
duties that will keep him from imbibing the 
atmosphere of careless indifference to moral 
obligations that has made these duties seem of 
so much less moment now, than they were be- 
lieved formerly to be. 

Deal strictly also with any disposition to 
cheat. When you know that this has been done, 

58 



TO DEVELOP CHARACTER 

quietly reject the work, take the child to one 
side, and tell him why his work was thrown out. 
Take no excuse for it, and train him to see that 
while failure is a mortification, cheating is to 
act a falsehood, and is also a theft. Never 
blame a child for failure in lessons when you 
know that he has done his best, but give him 
similar work to do by himself and then see 
where and why he failed. Children will soon 
learn that you will accept no dishonest or slip- 
shod work, and they will gradually become so 
established in accuracy, honesty, and thorough- 
ness in their work, that they will scorn tying, 
cheating, and carelessness wherever they see 
them. Constant daily drill is necessary to ac- 
complish all this, and it means, on the teacher's 
part, a daily renewal of self-discipline. But it 
is our necessity as teachers. 

As nearly as possible, train the children fn 
individual responsibility. Do not allow them 
to lay the blame of their own misconduct on 
some other child. Kindly, but firmly, show 
them that the choice always remains with them 
to choose their own line of conduct, and that 
it leads to its own legitimate result. It is well 
to let them see this in its practical workings. In 
every class there will always be a few, who, al- 
tho hearing instructions as to the lessons to 

59 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

be learned, waste time in idleness, waiting for the 
prodding that so often comes from the patient 
or impatient teacher. If they are spoken to 
often enough, the lesson is done; but the learn- 
ing of it has not helped the child along the path 
of character-making, since it has been done un- 
der the stress of the teacher's eyes and words. 
It is sometimes a good plan to let the child take 
its own way for once, and then visit him with 
some penalty, that will teach him that what 
seems the path of least resistance, may end in 
a quagmire of discomfort and regret, with the 
added consciousness that it was his own choice. 
Past history and the events of the day are 
full of proofs that our moral, mental, physical, 
and material belongings are largely the accu- 
mulation of our own acts, and we should try 
to impress upon children, early and late, that 
the way to avoid the mistakes of others is to 
lay in youth the sure and safe foundation of 
good habits. Read and tell children stories that 
will give an opportunity to get at their ideas 
by asking, "What would you do in such a 
case?'' and thus train them in thoughtfulness 
and discrimination. Children need this train- 
ing in thinking and deciding for themselves, 
that they may not be kept too long in moral 
leading-strings, but learn that as individuals 

60 



TO DEVELOP CHARACTER 

they are accountable and responsible for their 
own acts. 

Physical culture or military drill in school, 
from the prompt obedience it exacts, is also an 
aid to development of character. Memorizing 
poems and speeches that contain lofty senti- 
ments, also have their influence for good. To 
have a child concentrate most attention on the 
study he likes least, until he has conquered 
its difficulties, is another aid to character-build- 
ing, for the strongest characters are born of a 
conflict and victory. 

Finally, let us not forget that while Paul may 
plant and Apollos may water, God must give 
the increase. The spring from which we draw 
our drinking water may not always be in sight, 
yet if its source is pure, its health-giving waters 
will permeate our bodies, washing away all 
waste matter, and fill our systems with daily 
renewed life and strength. So, while we may 
not have the Bible in our schools, if we, as teach- 
ers, draw our daily inspiration from its pre- 
cepts, the children of our land are safe in our 
hands. As they leave us to take their places in 
the government and business positions to which 
they may be called, we may rest assured that 
our loved country shall not become a prey to 
those evils that fall upon the nations that for- 
get God. 

61 



How Best to Gain and Keep 
Control of Pupils 



BY A. J. GROUT 



HOW BEST TO GAIN AND KEEP CONTROL 
OF PUPILS 

In order to gain and keep control in the 
school-room, the teacher must have certain char- 
acteristics, natural or acquired. One must have 
self-confidence without conceit, self-control with- 
out coldness or stiffness of manner, a sound and 
active intellect, with good judgment and a keen 
sense of justice, and an unselfish interest in the 
welfare of others. 

These are greatly to be desired: A pleasing 
person and voice, good nature of a sort that is 
not easily imposed upon, a quick insight into 
character, and an affectionate and confidence- 
winning disposition. 

No one, of course, completely fills the bill, 
but the above is a good ideal to keep in mind. 

Women are more often deficient in confidence 
and self-control, and men are more likely to 
lack in unselfishness, and to have an unneces- 
sary amount of conceit. 

Methods must vary somewhat with the age 
of the pupils, as the author has learned in an 
experience of twenty years, covering all grades 
below the college. 

Children in the kindergarten and in the early 

65 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

primary grades are more often troublesome from 
spontaneous activity than from any conscious 
motive, and must be treated very differently 
from older and more self-conscious pupils. 

With the smaller folk plenty of physical ac- 
tivity and short periods for other exercises are 
necessary. Then, if the teacher can present her 
work in a way to hold attention and interest, 
and is firm but kind in insisting on obedience, 
little difficulty will be experienced. 

With the older pupils the opening day is most 
important. Begin with the assurance of suc- 
cess firmly fixed in your own mind, or in as 
near that state of mind as possible. One who 
enters the room timidly and deprecatingly is 
bound to have trouble, and that soon. Even if 
you can not help ''shaking in your shoes," use 
all your powers of self-control to appear uncon- 
cerned and as familiar with first days as with 
your breakfast. Every eye is on you for the 
first few hours and days, to see of what stuff you 
are made, and just as soon as the shyness of 
novelty has worn off, if not sooner, some irre- 
sponsible person will ''Do it just to see what 
teacher will do." If you hesitate then you are 
lost, — for the time at least. Do something your- 
self and do it quickly, so quickly as to take 
away the breath of the insurgent. 

66 



CONTROL OF PUPILS 

You need not necessarily be harsh, a little 
quick, sharp sarcasm that will make the school 
laugh with you at the offender, is one of the 
most potent weapons you can use. If you are 
not sharp enough or quick enough and the pu- 
pils laugh at you instead of with you, you lose. 

However successful a proceeding of this sort 
may be, do not always do the same thing; an 
unexpected punishment, especially if it have the 
elements of poetic justice, is often more effec- 
tive than a commonplace penalty that is much 
more severe. 

If, as not infrequently happens, a boy has a 
bad cough that sounds unnatural and proves 
very disturbing, it is much more effective to send 
him to the principal or to his parent, with a 
note stating that he has such a bad cough that 
he can not be allowed in the class-room until it 
is better, than to punish him directly. Under 
such circumstances I have seen some remarkably 
quick cures of distressing pulmonary affections. 

If a boy persists in standing up in his seat 
or moving about at times when he should remain 
seated, I find that an hour or two of continuous 
standing is very effective. One who has stood 
through a performance at the theater knows 
something of the probable feelings of the youth. 
Of course he must be so placed and controlled 

67 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

as not to be able to amuse himself at the teach- 
er's expense and to the disturbance of the rest 
of the room. 

In the hands of a weak teacher such punish- 
ments are almost sure to degenerate into a 
farce, to the great entertainment of the pupils, 
and the utter discomfiture of the teacher, but 
a teacher of this sort is pretty sure to make a 
mess of any kind of discipline. Because this 
kind of punishment may be abused is hardly 
a good reason why it should not be used. 

I find boys more often need sharp, short checks 
than girls, as girls are naturally more tractable 
than boys. But a boy rarely bears ill-will to- 
ward a teacher for giving him his just deserts, 
while a girl's sense of justice is much less keen, 
and she may bear a long grudge for a punish- 
ment that was eminently fair and just. A 
great deal of care can be used to advantage in 
punishing girls, as they are very sensitive to 
ridicule, and a reprimand that will only make 
a boy grin sheepishly, will often move a girl 
to tears and a long period of sulks. 

After one has won the first few trials of 
strength, things will settle down to a comforta- 
ble calm, broken occasionally by sporadic out- 
breaks that will occur, even under the best man- 
agement. These should not cause the teacher 

68 



CONTROL OF PUPILS 

any anxiety, as they are almost necessary inci- 
dents of school life. A school composed of dul- 
lards and ninnys might never make any trouble ; 
but a school of live, active youngsters is sure 
to explode now and then. 

Make just as few rules as possible, and do 
not lay down exact penalties for offenses; if 
you do, you will find yourself in very disagree- 
able situations that might easily have been 
avoided. State that the penalty is likely to be 
enforced, if you like, but always reserve the 
right to use your own discretion. 

State all but the most vital rules as requests 
or as requirements of ordinary good behavior, 
but when offenses against these requests or sug- 
gestions occur, do not argue or threaten what 
you will do next time, but inflict at once a just 
and adequate penal tj^ If you can be depended 
upon to say, '*I will do thus and so if you do it 
again," the alert youth is pretty sure to yield 
to the temptation to "do it just once," feeling 
secure from danger the first time. 

Avoid as you would the Evil One himself any 
appearance of personal vengeance, or even of 
purely retributive punishment. Strive in every 
way to show that your punishments are to pre- 
vent future offenses, not to "pay up" for past 
misdeeds. 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

Perhaps the two most vital requirements for 
success in school discipline are self-control and 
justness. These qualities will win respect and 
admiration for the strictest disciplinarian, while 
the good-natured "easy" teacher has neither. 

If you can not control yourself, you can not 
satisfactorily control others. I have often seen 
teachers so easily aroused to a passion, which 
vented itself chiefly in angry abuse and threats, 
that their pupils would purposely stir them for 
the purpose of enjoying the degrading diversion 
furnished. 

By sheer force of mind and tongue, or as a 
last resort, by physical force, one may keep or- 
der, but keeping order is no more controlling 
one's pupils than sitting on the safety valve is 
putting out the fire under the boilers. You do 
not control until you control mind as well as 
body. Here lies the danger of corporal punish- 
ment. It is often used to compel order and de- 
ludes the teacher into a belief that he has con- 
trol when he has only the outward obedience due 
to fear. 

Although quickness is almost imperative at 
times, it does not necessitate even the appearance 
of anger. Let the offense be treated as entirely 
impersonal and a detriment to the welfare of all. 
If matters are to be discussed as personal, let 

70 



CONTROL OF PUPILS 

them be discussed in a friendly way with the 
pupil alone. 

Pupils are so different that the same offense 
by two different pupils must be treated in very 
different ways. Circumstances also alter cases 
very materially. It is often difficult to treat a 
case individually in this manner without laying 
yourself open to the charge of ** partiality/ ' but 
if you attempt in good faith to be absolutely 
just, while you may be misunderstood at first, 
unless you are woefully lacking in judgment, 
your intentions will, in the long run, receive as 
near their true estimate as anything human ever 
gets. For these keen-eyed youngsters of ours 
are as fair-minded as the goddess herself. If 
a pupil has the appearance of a genuine feeling 
of injustice, go far out of your way to explain 
the case until you are certain that your efforts 
are wasted. After your explanation, insist that 
all outward remonstrance be stopped at once. 

We are all fallible and prone to make mistakes. 
When you find yourself mistaken, acknowledge 
it at once, fully and frankly. If your mistake 
has been of a personal nature, apologize and 
make as full reparation as possible. If this is 
done in a frank, manly way, you will always 
gain and never lose, unless you are a hopeless 
blunderer and unfit for the school-room. 

71 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

You may have almost perfect outward control 
and the entire respect of your pupils with lit- 
tle or no affection toward you. Affection you 
can not have in any considerable degree unless 
you, yourself, have an affection for the un- 
trained and chaotic, often rebellious, but essen- 
tially open and plastic natures, that look out at 
you from the windows of those unlined faces 
that greet you every morning. 

Love is the greatest thing in the world in the 
school-room or out, and he who gives and gains 
has the key to the control of young minds and 
hearts, and he has it not for the hour or for the 
day, but for all time— and perhaps beyond. 



72 



How to Teach Children to 
Think 

BY AGNES C. RALPH 



HOW TO TEACH CHILDREN TO THINK 

There are many phases of complaint on the 
lips of teachers and parents that imply the de- 
sirability of the *' thinking" process on the part 
of their charges. 

"He can not think out a problem for himself." 
''Her examinations are poor because she 
doesn't think.'* 

''He doesn't mean to (commit this or that 
fault), but he doesn't think." 

"My daughter never thinks for herself.'' 
"In their nature-study they do not think." 
There are different shades of meaning in these 
various accusations. In the first, reasoning pro- 
cesses as applied to arithmetic and algebra seem 
to be in the mind of the speaker. One trouble 
with many children who are set down in the 
category of non-thinkers, is, that either as a 
whole, or in its parts, they fail to visualize a 
problem. Another almost insurmountable dif- 
ficulty is self-consciousness, which is often re- 
placed by an overwhelming consciousness of en- 
vironment. A method of doing away with the 
two latter troubles, and furnishing mental pic- 

75 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

tures until the child learns their value, and 
forms the visualizing habit, is a sort of *' play- 
hypnotism," as follows: 

Let the room be quiet — so quiet there is noth- 
ing to distract you. Require the children to lay 
their heads on the desks, shut their eyes, and 
rest for an instant, — not for long, for fear of 
day-dreams. Without allowing them to awake 
from their play-sleep, picture to them in brief, 
vivid sentences, without repetition or unneces- 
sary detail, the parts of the problem in their 
proper relations. Ask the vital questions, and 
after a moment call for volunteers. Not all, 
but more than before, will be ready with the 
answer. 

An apparent failure to think often arises from 
failure to understand the premises. Questions 
on premises only reveal the error, and the young 
person is placed in a position to reason to the 
end. 

Ordinary class-work seldom develops thinkers. 
It is possible, however, to handle a class as a 
collection of individuals, but no one of the col- 
lection must be allowed to ^* suggest" to the 
others. Ideas developed should be written down. 
After the matter at hand has been exhaustively 
presented, and time for thinking allowed, then 
the written conclusions may be read aloud. This 

76 



TEACHING TO THINK 

leads to a sort of game of conclusions wrought 
out in some such way as this : 

'* There is a certain conclusion which I wish 
each one of you to discover for herself from 
the directions I am going to give you. It is like 
a nut hidden in several shells, and I want you 
to take them off, one by one, to see what is inside. 
You will not know what I am driving at, at 
first, but watch! 

1. You may divide x^ by x and write problem 
and answer on your paper. 

2. You may write the fraction JLL and its 
quotient. 

3. This time I want you to put down the pro- 
cess by which you obtain the quotient. Do noth- 
ing mentally that does not appear on your pa- 
per. Solve ic" 

(I expect from this to obtain the form 

4. In the same manner as (3), solve -^ 

Is number four in exactly the same form as 
number three"? Be sure of this. 

Is your quotient x with an exponent ? 

Do not tell me what the quotient is, but at 
the left of -^in (4), write the sign of equal- 
77 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

ity. Now place at the left of that, what you 
would most naturally write as the quotient of —■ 

Study what you have and write a conclusion 
as to the value of x\ 

Substitute various values for x in expression 
(4), and see if this value is always the same, 
no matter what x equals. 

(a) a'—? 

W 2/-? 
(c) 5^-? 

Read me what you have written under one, 
two, three, and four, together with your con- 
clusion and the answers to (a), (&), (c) and {d). 

The second complaint cited at the beginning 
of this writing will never be relieved until the 
child concerned has herself developed the criti- 
cal faculty. Her written work must be per- 
formed under circumstances accompanied by no 
nervous strain, so that the excuse of being ** rat- 
tled" need not be offered. If possible, make it 
so pleasant that she enjoys it. Then persuade 
her to criticise it thoroughly before giving it 
to you. 

I returned a paper to a boy the other day 
with the remark, ''There are five mistakes on 
it." 

78 



TEACHING TO THINK 

''I can't find any," he growled, knowing that 
statement and illustration were as he had learned 
them. I said nothing, and in a few moments he 
had brought back the paper with two plurals 
and two missing letters where they rightly be- 
longed. 

*'I can find but four," he announced, a lit- 
tle more pleasantly. 

' ' There are five, ' ' I answered. 

**0h, capital P!" and he dived at his paper 
with an actual smile. 

The practice of discovering his own mistakes 
is invaluable to this sort of boy, since he passes 
as a poor student, merely because of heedless- 
ness. I should advise the criticism of each oth- 
er's papers as a regular exercise in all classes. 

Thoughtlessness of the third sort occurs be- 
cause the wounds of former experiences do not 
cut deeply enough into the memory. A natural 
impulsiveness can be curbed by the recollection 
of former disaster. I do not intend by this to 
advocate severity of punishment; quite the 
opposite, but impressiveness of punishment, to 
the extent of affecting the memory, and arous- 
ing the sensitiveness so that it may not be indif- 
ferent to scars. 

The mind that does not plan for itself, pro- 
vide for emergencies, and arrange its future, be 

79 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

that future limited to the little to-morrow of a 
school-child, needs stimulation. The habit of 
forethought will come, like other habits, by 
repetition. The natural punishment is that the 
child should go without what it has failed to 
provide or plan for. But beware of cultivating 
indifference. Simply give your daughter cer- 
tain responsibilities and praise her for fore- 
thought in connection with them until it becomes 
a pleasure and a habit. 

The last complaint, like the first, is of failure 
to use reasoning powers. Children do not read- 
ily see the problems of nature-study. A dis- 
gusted boy frequently meets you with, "I don't 
see anything there to study," when you give 
him a leaf or flower. Kouse his interest, first 
of all; perhaps by telling him something won- 
derful about the cells and growth, that can be 
seen with a powerful microscope, and that he 
shall see by and by, when he studies botany in 
the high school ; perhaps by giving him a strange- 
ly marked leaf with labyrinthine tracery on it, 
and leaving him to discover why it differs from 
those his fellows are patiently studying. Let 
him find the tiny worm under the epidermis, 
and then present him with the problem of how 
it came there and what its future is to be. When 
his real interest in nature is aroused he will be 

80 



TEACHING TO THINK 

more content to plod on through the drudgery 
of shapes, margins, bases, etc. 

The solution of a number of nature's prob- 
lems will suggest others, and the children work- 
ing with you may (I am not too sanguine) ac- 
quire the habit of reading problems in the Old 
Nature-Book for themselves. 



SI 



Advantages of Memory Work 



BY W. C. HEWITT 



ADVANTAGES OP MEMORY WORK 

The writer of this paper has instructed young 
people and their teachers for a quarter of a 
century, and this essay is a brief expression of 
the views that have grown out of this face to 
face contact with them in school and institute. 

That the discussion may be practical, we shall 
discuss the subject in the following order: 

What should be memorized. 

How shall we go about it? 

The advantages. 

I. — At the outset we call attention to the fact 
that there is a distinction between commitable 
and readable selections. Some people conclude 
that if a piece is ''interesting," or if children 
like it, it is fit to be memorized. Here lies a 
serious error which is the cause of children be- 
ing taught a lot of stuff called "memory gems" 
— much of which is silly and will not outlast 
the period of the second reader. In books for 
memorizing I find given such selections as ' ' The 
Baven," ''Charge of the Light Brigade," "The 
Owl and the Pussy Cat," and "Little Orphan 
Annie. ' ' 

We are not saying that these are not worth 

85 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

reading — they are all interesting — but they are 
not good material for memory work. 

1. If a whole poem is chosen for memorizing 
it should be short. 

In the long poem it is difficult to keep the 
thoughts together, and because it can so seldom 
be quoted in its entirety, it is forgotten. 

Gray's ''Elegy" has been called a perfect 
piece of literature, but it is too long to be com- 
mitted in its entirety — the illuminating points 
are confined to a dozen brilliant stanzas. 

The message of the eighteenth Psalm is as 
precious as that of the first, the eighth or twenty- 
third — yet I have never found a person who 
could say the eighteenth, but I have known many 
who could and did use the three others in every- 
day conversation. An ideal length for a com- 
plete poem is found in such as "Abou Ben 
Adhem," ''The Nightingale and the Glow- 
worm," "Crossing the Bar," or Burroughs' 
"My Own Shall Come to Me." 

2. If the poem is a long one only so much of 
it should be memorized as contains the illumi- 
nating point of the selection. This "illuminat- 
ing point" is always a noble thought, nobly ex- 
pressed. With respect to the extent of its ap- 
plication to life, this illuminating point may 
be designated as the "general, or universal ele- 



MEMORY WORK 

ment," because it is a truth that applies to 
every class and condition of men, and so finds 
an interpreter in high and low alike; with re- 
spect to its importance it may be called the 
soul of the poem. 

Many poems contain more than one of these 
universal elements, and so it is that some poems 
have been full of help to the race of mankind. 

The Proverbs and the sayings of Jesus Christ 
are full of these illuminated universal elements. 

Let us illustrate our meaning: 

Take O'Reilly's ''Pilgrim Fathers;" the uni- 
versal element is the fourteen lines beginning 
with ''One righteous word for law — the com- 
mon will." 

In "Marco Bozzaris" — the last two stanzas. 

In Whittier's "Maud MuUer" it is found in 
the last twelve lines. 

In Kings II, xx, it is condensed in the elev- 
enth verse. 

I once visited a grammar school where the 
whole class had read "Snow-Bound," and had 
committed to memory the first sixty-five lines, 
and not one of them could recite any of the 
beautiful passages beginning with the following 
lines : 

"Henceforward listen as we will" 

"Our Uncle innocent of books" 

87 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

''Dear Aunt whose smile of cheer," or 

''But still I wait with ear and eye." 

"We do not seek to restrict individual choice 
in these matters, but surely he is in error who 
passes by Corinthians I, xiii, and commits to 
memory the first seventeen verses of Matthew i. 

3. Since life is many-sided, the memory se- 
lections should be chosen to meet the needs of 
the many-sided child. 

I once knew an intermediate teacher, who un- 
der the influence of the nature study idea, taught 
only ' ' nature ' ' poems. No wonder the pupils 
perished from soul starvation. 

a. First of all, we are the children of God, 
and so I put first those selections that feed and 
freshen the soul for daily life and need. 

Good illustrations of this class of selections 
are: 

Psalm xxiii; Marvel's Paraphrase of Psalm 
xix ; " Abou Ben Adhem : ' ' Lowell 's ' ' Yusseuf ; ' ' 
a part of "The Chambered Nautilus;" Cow- 
per's "Providence;" and Tennyson's "Crossing 
the Bar." 

h. We are sons of God, but citizens of the Re- 
public; so every child should know a few of the 
national hymns and poems. These fit him to 
think of his country nobly, to live honorably, 
and to serve her valiantly. 

88 



MEMORY WORK 

Illustrations: ''America;" the first fourteen 
lines of "The Declaration of Independence;" 
Lincoln's Gettysburg Address; the colors and 
meaning of the flag in Butterworth 's "White 
Bordered Flag;" Wilder 's "Stand by the 
Flag;" Scott's "Breathes there a Man," and 
the concluding lines of Longfellow's "Building 
of the Ship." 

c. The mind loves to contemplate ideal types 
of character, and so children should memorize 
selections that set forth noble ideals of man- 
hood and womanhood. Such selections as the 
following have proved very efficient toward this 
end: " Ecclesiastes xxxi: 10-31; Lee's descrip- 
tion of Washington; Burns' Epitaph on him- 
self; Goldsmith's Village Preacher; and the par- 
able of the House on the Rock, Matt. vii. 

d. The child needs a philosophy of life. At 
best, with most of us life is very imperfect, but 
without some noble conception of duty beyond 
us and above us, it is bound to be worse. 

Experience shows us that maxim-trained men 
have the advantage in life's race. 

Such selections as the following are sure to 
leaves their impress on character: Lowell's 
"They are slaves who fear to speak for the 
fallen and the weak;" Mackay's "Cleon Hath a 
Million Acres;" Burns' "For a' That;" Long- 

89 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

fellow's *' Builders;" and the parable of the 
Talents, Matt. xxv. 

II. — Having determined what kinds of se- 
lections should be taught for memory work, let 
us now consider how we should go about it. 

1. Teachers should not ask children to learn 
selections which they themselves do not know. 
In the writer's experience much of the failure 
to make memory-work inspiring is that teachers 
do not move forward in front. 

It has been a very common experience to find 
teachers of the grades unable themselves to re- 
cite the amount they have required of their 
pupils. Where such a condition exists memory 
work is sure to be a fizzle. 

2. Only a few lines should be given at a time. 
This will make the task easy and give pupils a 
chance to think over the idea. If the teacher 
learns the selection with the class there will be 
little danger of assigning too much to be learned. 

3. After the selection has been learned and 
recited several times, it should be copied in a 
book, and preserved. Teachers who do not do 
this lose three-fourths of the value of the exer- 
cise. If selections are not written down they 
are only half memorized, and of course will pass 
from the memory very easily. 

4. Memorized selections should be often re- 

90 



MEMORY WORK 

viewed. For a thing to get fixed permanently in 
the mind it must be forgotten and relearned sev- 
eral times. Teachers of the higher grades often 
make no use of what the child has already 
learned, and so many a beautiful selection rises 
in clouds and sets in darkness. 

5. The whole of the universal element should 
be committed to memory. Scrappy, half-com- 
pleted selections are an abomination. 

Sometimes the literary strength is of almost 
as much importance as the thought itself, and 
to stop with work half done is a serious error. 

Sometimes it is necessary to learn the whole 
poem so as not to lose the literary unity. I do 
not see how any one could teach less than the 
whole of such poems as * ' The Mountain and the 
Squirrel;" ''Barbara Frietchie;" "Hohenlin- 
den;" or ''The Old Clock on the Stairs." 

6. A very effective way of keeping the words 
fresh in mind, and the structure of the literary 
unity intact, is for the teacher or some pupil to 
start in and read, say "Snow-Bound;" and 
whenever a place is reached where the pupil 
can quote the thought, the reader is to stop and 
let the pupil finish the quotation. 

7. When a beautiful selection has been learned 
the question "What in this is beautiful, and 
why ? " is often an excellent stimulus to thought. 

91 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

III. — The advantages of memory work are 
many. 

1. It keeps a noble thought fixed before the 
mind. 

Experience shows that the pupils who commit 
to memory very simple things do great things 
with them: they quote them to others, use them 
in writing, and in hours of silence or temptation, 
turn them over in their minds. 

If a thing is read but once or twice there is 
very little to think over — indeed much reading 
destroys thinking, just as two pictures on the 
same negative blur each other. 

What is in the memory is in the mind, and 
is independent of book, teacher, or circumstance. 

2. The choice selection is apt to contain new 
words, and so there is a continual enlargement 
of the vocabulary. 

In making up the memory books it is an ex- 
cellent plan to keep a page or two for new 
words, and then have stimulating spelling les- 
sons and sentence exercises. Another is for the 
teacher to quote some peculiar word or phrase 
and let the pupil name the poem and give the 
quotation. 

During a six months' experience with forty- 
five pupils in a ninth grade the average number 
of new words gained for each pupil under this 

92 



) 



MEMORY WORK 

plan was one hundred and five. Of course the list 
was not large, but it represented new ideas, and 
a genuine and enthusiastic progression in word- 
study. I think I never saw such progress in 
spelling in any corresponding length of time. 

Incidentally, and with no special lesson from 
the teacher, this copying of selections and re- 
writing of them gave the class a knowledge of 
practical punctuation that proved sufficient for 
all ordinary uses. 

3. The most important influence that I have 
ever noticed from the memory-training is in the 
realm of what might be termed the child's inner 
thinking. Andrew D. White, in his autobiog- 
raphy, refers to this influence when, in speaking 
of his teacher, Joseph Allen, he says: ''I recall 
among the treasures of literature thus gained, 
extracts that have been precious to me ever 
since in many a weary and sleepless hour on 
land and sea." 

When principal of a union city high school 
I sent out questions to about eighty of the citi- 
zens, asking among other things, what influence, 
if any, beautiful memorized thoughts had had 
upon their lives. The testimony was almost uni- 
versal in attributing a greater success in life 
to the noble selections committed to memory 
when they were children. 
93 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

What, perhaps, to me, was strangest of all, 
was that in nearly every case there was some 
reference to the beauty in which the thought 
was clothed. 

Thus all testimony and experience seem to 
unite in attributing great importance to the 
thoughts committed to memory in childhood. 
Noble thoughts nobly expressed are surely the 
proper seeds for the soul of the child, for he 
will gather their fruit often in the advancing 
years. 

Shall we not say of all noble words of the 
great and good what was said of the Ancient 
Law: ''Bind them about thy neck, write them 
on the table of thine heart?" 



M 



How Best to 

Teach Concentration 

BY KATE WALTON 



HOW BEST TO TEACH CONCENTRATION 

The writer wishes to state, by way of intro- 
duction, that the ideas here stated are the re- 
sult of experience in many grades, and in many 
classes of schools — country schools of New York 
and Indiana, village schools in the latter state, 
city schools of Indiana, New Jersey and New 
York, and in varied private tutoring. Most of 
the regular teaching was in seventh and eighth 
grammar grades, but recent substitute work, 
in classes ranging from second year primary to 
high-school seniors, has been an excellent oppor- 
tunity for the verification or modification of 
theories previously held. 

As a result of this varied work she is becom- 
ing daily more convinced that the power of con- 
centration, under any given conditions, depends 
much more on heredity and training than on 
the will of the pupil. While substituting one 
day here and the next there, she offered special 
inducements for concentration, and often found 
that the pupils most anxious to do as required 
were the least able. Let the untrained child 
realize his need as fully as may be, and use 
his full power, his success is usually very slight 

97 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

compared with that of the one who has had sys- 
tematic training in concentration. In a few 
cases, it has almost seemed that the habit of 
careful attention had become so nearly auto- 
matic with regular training, that wavering at- 
tention was as nearly impossible to those chil- 
dren, as steady application is to most. 

After teaching, as stated above, chiefly in 
seventh and eighth grades, and comparing pu- 
pils of various schools and cities, the writer is 
more than ever impressed with the need of be- 
ginning this drill with the first hours the chil- 
dren spend in school, and never forgetting 
through the entire course its fundamental value 
in present work, and for future power. 

Any one who has had any experience with 
little children knows their very limited power 
of attention to one object, even when aided by 
the presence of bright colors and varied sound 
or movement, and realizes the futility of expect- 
ing children just entering school to concentrate 
for more than one or two minutes on work re- 
quiring mental effort only. To give a small 
child a book and tell him to study or read, is 
worse than loss of effort, for it is a sure prepara- 
tion for lost study hours in the future. When 
pupils of these lower grades are left to work 
alone, as they must in the crowded city 

98 



CONCENTRATION 

schools and in the poorly graded country ones, 
and as they ought sometimes to be for their 
own development in self-reliance, let the teacher 
see that the time is short, not over fifteen min- 
utes at the most, and that the work assigned is 
really busy work, work employing hands as well 
as eyes and minds, work so varied and alive with 
interest to the pupils that the tendency will be 
toward, not away from, attention to it. And 
let the beginning of study, as the term is meant 
in higher grades, be under the direct supervi- 
sion of the teacher, that she may change the 
work as soon as she sees the children begin to 
turn to other things. 

Grade by grade, as the child advances, this 
power should increase, both in intensity and 
duration, and, in the writer's opinion, this in- 
crease should be, in the mind of both teacher 
and pupil, the chief basis for promotion. 

Altho the definite plans to be mentioned 
were used in upper grades chiefly, the writer 
believes that the principles apply, whatever may 
be the age of the pupils. It is assumed that each 
teacher has two divisions, which in some sub- 
jects recite separately, one studying while the 
other recites. 

Let us first think of concentration during the 
recitation period. The first requisite is the ap- 

99 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

preciation by both teacher and pupil of its value, 
for tho it is not the strongest factor in abil- 
ity to concentrate, the voluntary action of the 
pupil toward that end is by no means an unim- 
portant one. This voluntary co-operation of the 
pupils may usually be secured by talks with, 
not to, the class, with illustrations of the value 
of this power of concentration, given by them 
from various occupations. Later, individual 
talks may be needed with special pupils. 

Above all, let the teacher constantly show her 
appreciation of its value, by her methods of 
work and discipline. With weak grades, in par- 
ticular, as far as possible eliminate disturbing 
elements, such as interesting objects on the desks, 
movement by other pupils, visits from pupils and 
teachers of other rooms, visitors who come to 
see the teacher, the outside street noises, and 
numerous other hindrances known to every 
teacher. But if these must exist, try to help 
the pupils to concentrate their thoughts on the 
work despite them, and to look on the unavoid- 
able interruptions as so many opportunities to 
acquire the power to turn again to work as if 
not interrupted, or to ignore entirely outside 
things. Once, when working in an unfinished 
building, amidst the din of hammers on iron 
stairways, the shouts of the workmen, the test- 

100 



CONCENTRATION 

ing of electric bells, and the talk of men putting 
radiators into the room, the teacher was surprised 
and impressed by the powers the sixth-year pu- 
pils showed of working steadily, even when di- 
rections had to be given from the blackboard, 
as the teacher's voice could not be heard above 
the uproar. Make the pupils feel that, for fu- 
ture life value, the passing of this test is of 
more value than 100 per cent, in arithmetic, 
geography, or spelling. 

Be careful that the work is varied, alive, and 
interesting to your pupils, to assist them to at- 
tend steadily, but do not forget that, aside from 
the end in view, some of life's work is drudgery, 
and give your pupils a chance to become accus- 
tomed to work carefully and steadily on work 
in itself not interesting, as the drudgery of long 
computations in mathematics, or of learning 
new words in foreign languages. Make them 
feel that here is an especially fine chance to ac- 
quire the habit of attention, and in particular on 
the one or two subjects each child finds of little 
interest to him — his hard subjects. They cease 
to be hard when the boy or girl looks on them 
as the tools by which he may manufacture a 
wished-for power. 

The teacher should not, except in extreme 
cases, interrupt the sequence of her work by re- 



101 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

bukes to pupils reciting, or studying in another 
division. The loss of time to the one boy or 
girl idling is less serious than the loss to an 
entire class. Neither should she allow the at- 
tention to be drawn to side issues by some chance 
suggestion of a pupil. 

Be sure that each pupil recites distinctly 
enough to be heard with ease by every other, 
and hold each child responsible for a knowledge 
of all that has been said. Keep your own words 
distinct, but as low as conditions allow, and 
don't, ordinarily, repeat. Remember we can 
not expect pupils to attend to what they can 
not hear, nor to what will probably be immedi- 
ately repeated. 

Substituting one day with a fourth-year 
class, the writer was surprised at the conditions 
during the study period, when two rows of pu- 
pils were very busy and others very idle. The 
answer to the problem was received, when at 
the beginning of the recitation, the teacher was 
informed that it was the turn of a certain row, 
(one of the studious ones), to recite first in geog- 
raphy that day. She then remembered that 
among the directions left her by the regular 
teacher were notices of whose turn it was to pass 
first to the board that day, and whose to recite 
first in the various classes. A few minutes' 

102 



CONCENTRATION 

work with a reading class in that room, when 
but one pupil apparently heard the teacher's 
directions, and that one the pupil Avhose turn 
it was next, were to her convincing evidences of 
the evil results of the "turn" method extensively- 
used. There are, as every teacher knows, occa- 
sions when it is valuable, but it is certainly de- 
structive to concentration, if habitually used. 

When a class is not able to concentrate well, 
great care must be taken so to carry on the reci- 
tation that the pupils are steadily helped toward 
it. If the work be such as makes it possible, fre- 
quent answers written to hold the attention to 
what has gone before, and to call back wander- 
ing minds, will help. Often in mental arithme- 
tic or in English, it saves time in the end, to have 
each pupil write each answer, call on one pupil 
to recite, have all compare, and report by stand- 
ing, uplifted hand, or in response to his name. 
You are then sure that each pupil has done all 
the work, and no time has been allowed for inat- 
tention. This should be unnecessary in a trained 
class. A regular or frequent collection and sur- 
vey of these papers by the teacher is often a 
great incentive to careful, attentive work. Don't 
let your pupils acquire the habit of inattention. 
If in helping one pupil, who is backw^ard, the re- 
turn to them and help the backward one pri- 
vately. 

103 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

In oral work, a glance into the eyes of each 
pupil as he completes his work, enables the 
teacher to be sure that no one is shirking, and 
it can be given so quickly that no time will be 
lost, if the pupils are accustomed to look up to 
her as the answer is obtained. The conditions 
during the study hour are very important, for it 
is difficult even for trained pupils to study while 
an interesting lesson is going on in the room. Try 
so to arrange your program that when the geog- 
raphy, history, or literature are being recited, 
the pupils studying have some hand work, as 
written arithmetic or English, on which it is 
much easier to concentrate than on mental work 
only. Then, too, have the pupils feel that this 
study time is the especial hour in which to gain 
power of concentration, and lead them to make 
an especial effort toward uninterrupted study. 

The writer once used special drill in concen- 
tration for an unusually weak class with very 
encouraging results. The class was a 2B in a 
great eastern city, in an institution where desti- 
tute children and young law breakers were sent 
by the courts, and where the discipline was 
rigid. The class consisted of about fifty boys 
from six to fourteen years old, many of whom 
were unable to read the first pages in a primer. 
They seemed to have no power of attention to 

104 



CONCENTRATION 

work. Before a word written on the blackboard 
could be pronounced, and its meaning given by 
the pupils, half of the class were thinking of 
something outside. Before a simple one-step 
problem could be solved, half had forgotten its 
conditions. In reading, not the most fascinat- 
ing story or fairy tale could long hold their 
attention. 

Devices were used to hold eyes and thus 
thoughts ; directions were spelled phonetically to 
catch recreant ears, and special attention drills 
were given at each pause in the work, for march- 
ing, roll call, and the other possible times. The 
decisive call ** attention" was followed by "one" 
when the feet came into a certain specified posi- 
tion at once. "Two" was the signal for a cer- 
tain position of body and arms, and at "three" 
the teacher expected to see directly into each 
boy's eyes as she glanced toward him. This 
position was required during any work calling 
her attention from the class, as attention to 
monitors, roll call, or writing on the black- 
board, and was rigidly enforced. The time spent 
with the class was only five weeks, but the results 
in increase of power of concentration were en- 
couraging enough to lead the teacher to decide 
to try the same plan again when she had a weak 
class. At the end of the time not one word 

105 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

but two, three, and often four could be discussed 
without their minds wandering; two or three 
problems could be solved, and once or twice 
an entire lesson was read with the attention of 
all but one or two pupils steadily upon it. 

To repeat the statement made at the start — 
the will of the pupils is a great help to concen- 
tration, but it can not take the place of syste- 
matic training, of a fixed habit of holding the 
mind steadily to oae thing. 



106 



How to Develop the 
Conversational Powders of Pupils 



BY FLORA ELMER 



HOW TO DEVELOP THE CONVERSATIONAL 
POWERS OF PUPILS 

In order to be a good speaker, one must pri- 
marily be brimful of thoughts that he wishes 
to express. Yet he may be well stocked with ex- 
cellent ideas and not have the vocabulary or 
fluency of speech to enable him to make his con- 
versation attractive and interesting. 

Children, from American homes, if not of a 
timid nature, have considerable ability in the 
line of conversation when they enter school. 
Most of the pupils in our large cities are of for- 
eign parentage, however, and work in language 
must necessarily proceed very slowly. 

Quite recently I saw a bright young teacher 
tell a long story to an infant class. She related 
her story charmingly, holding the little ones 
spellbound. But, alas ! when she called for repe- 
titions, or rather reproductions, none were 
forthcoming. I could not have repeated the 
story as interestingly as she did myself, and the 
little cherubs about us, no doubt, realized their 
lack in the power of expression* Finally, after 
much coaxing, one fair-haired maiden volun- 
teered to reproduce the story, and succeeded ad- 

109 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

miringly. ''That is the way," said the teacher, 
turning to me. ''Ada, or John, and possibly 
Harold, will tell a story for me, but I can't get 
the rest to talk. They won't even try." 

I have gone through the same discouragement, 
always hoping that by and by more would at- 
tempt to imitate Ada and John. This does 
happen sometimes, but experience has taught 
me that all must have something to say in the 
language lesson. The work must be planned 
to benefit the majority. "From the simple to 
the complex," this is the most vital principle 
of all pedagogy. Therefore, proceed slowly, step 
by step. Begin a lesson thus: 

To-day, children, I want each one of you to 
tell me something about your baby at home, 
something interesting, something that I would 
like to know and you want to tell. Quickly will 
come responses: 

Clara: "Our baby can walk." 
Bella: "Our baby can laugh." 
Hans: "Our baby has blue eyes." 
Carl: "Our baby has got two legs." Again 
Carl: "Our baby has two legs." 

Gretchen: "Our baby sleeps all the time." 
Every child will respond, if only to say : ' ' We 
have no baby at our home." On the following 
days talk about papa, mamma, teacher, school, 

110 



CONVERSATIONAL POWERS 

home, etc Every child begins his sentence with 
*'Our house," which soon becomes monotonous, 
so I suggest : ' * Let me see how many of you can 
tell me something about your home and not 
begin with ** 'Our house.' " Now come sen- 
tences like: 

The roof of our house is made of shingles. 

The street car passes our house. 

We live in a two-story house. 

Before taking the regular reading lesson, we 
always read the picture. It tells us so much 
if we but stop to look. 

Picture stories furnish excellent opportunities. 
Give the boy in the picture a name. Also name 
the dog. Now let John tell a story about the 
child and dog. Irma may then give her version 
of the same. This brings the imagination into 
play, tests the child's handling of words, but 
makes no tax on his memory. 

During these early lessons I would entertain 
the children with stories, but as yet I would 
require no reproductions. They will come in 
due time, but will be very, very short for many 
weeks. In order to be able to reproduce a story, 
the pupils must have no difficulty ih grasping 
the thought, and the incidents in the narrative 
must be of such a nature, that one step suggests 
the following. 

Ill 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

Do not correct mistakes in these first steps. 
Lead the child to speak up lively and do not 
hamper him in any way. Later begin by calling 
attention to just one mistake. If one mistake 
is pointed out, it will probably .make some im- 
pression on him, if two or three are corrected, 
the pupil becomes disgusted and will pay no 
attention to any. 

After considerable facility in reading has been 
attained, pupils should reproduce many para- 
graphs that they read silently. Sometimes let 
the paragraph be read orally, but as many syn- 
onyms inserted as possible. Sometimes change 
the noun from singular to plural — verbs and 
pronouns correspondingly. Again change the 
name ''Frank" to "Ella," then changing the 
gender of all pronouns. 

Do not interfere with a narrative because 
some minor detail has been omitted; be content 
if the general thread of the story is continuous. 

By the time the children have reached the 
fifth grade, expect a great deal of topical work 
in geography and grammar. It will be ex- 
ceedingly difficult at the outset, but step by 
step you will eventually succeed. It has been 
my experience when teaching a fifth grade 
geography, that the first attempts at descrip- 
tion were more than disastrous. 

112 



CONVERSATIONAL POWERS 

After we have finished our study of the Ama- 
zon river, I expect a child to tell a great deal 
about it. Perhaps the first pupil called upon 
may rise and say: "The Amazon river rises in 
the Andes, flows east, and empties into the At- 
lantic ocean. ' ' Then he may hesitate, look about 
and expect me to ask some ten or twelve ques- 
tions before I can pump everything out of him 
that he knows about the Amazon. Which latter 
action we are prone to call leading out a child. 
This is very good at times, but is much overdone 
by inexperienced teachers. The time comes 
when every child must be able to stand on his 
own feet and tell what he knows. I often make 
this remark : ' ' Who can talk for ^ye minutes on 
the 'Amazon river?' " Perhaps the first effort 
will give me a one minute recitation, and the 
next two, which will generally satisfy me. It 
isn't, you will understand, the time he speaks, 
but the fact that he has learned to tell what is 
in his mind — unburdened his soul — and poured 
out all he knows on the subject under consid- 
eration. At all times insist on complete sen- 
tences, whether the lesson be language, writing, 
arithmetic, or singing. Thus language is corre- 
lated with the other subjects in the curriculum. 

In grammar, after the subject of nouns has 



113 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

been taught, I expect a child to begin a recita- 
tion on nouns thus: 

'*A noun is a name, as: boy, John, desk, river, 
book. All nouns are divided into two classes: 
common and proper. A common noun is a name 
given to a class of objects, as: book, chair, boy, 
dog, table. A proper noun is a special name 
given to a person, place, or thing, as: John, 
Clara, Missouri river, Wisconsin, Christianity. 
Every proper noun must begin with a capital 
letter. Nouns are also divided into the two 
classes called singular and plural. A singular 
noun — at this point I would call upon another 
pupil to continue. 

After a little practise of this kind the chil- 
dren become independent and interesting speak- 
ers. They daily gain confidence in themselves. 
If found difficult at the beginning, do not grow 
discouraged; remember my first answer to the 
topic: *' Surface of Mexico," generally brings 
this remark : ' * The surface of Mexico is rocky. ' ' 
It is not a simple matter to describe intelligently 
so large a portion of land. 

When the children have a good vocabulary at 
their command, call attention to the fact that 
the repetition of the same word makes conversa- 
tion monotonous. Show the children how to 
avoid using **said he" too frequently by saying: 

114 



CONVERSATIONAL POWERS 

'^ replied the lad," ''was the father's remark," 
"said the boy thoughtfully," or the like. For- 
bid the use of ''and then," "after that," etc. 

Occasionally have an informal conversational 
chat with the children. ' ' Who has something he 
would like to tell us ? " This question will bring 
forth many spontaneous remarks that will help 
the teacher get close in touch with her little 
charges. 

Our most fascinating speakers are not always 
those who cling rigidly to form. Grammar is 
the least necessary of the four essentials to good 
conversation. These four essentials are: 

Thoughts, Words, Style, Grammar. 

Let it be our aim in the language lesson, there- 
fore, to implant ideas, arouse thoughts; these 
to be clothed in a vocabulary of choice words 
pleasingly uttered with an originality of style, 
simple, forceful, and irresistibly charming. 



115 



The Place of Biography in 
General Education 

BY GEOFFREY F. MORGAN 



THE PLACE OF BIOGRAPHY IN GENERAL 
EDUCATION 

''Not only in the common speech of men^ but in all 
art too — which is or should be the concentrated and con- 
served essence of what men can speak or show — Bio- 
graphy is almost the one thing needful." — Carlyle. 

'■ ' Every person may learn something from the recorded 
life of another, . . . the records of the lives of 
good men are especially useful." — Smiles. 

All children are hero worshipers at some pe- 
riod of their growth. They are all attracted by 
any man who can perform or has performed 
some deed of which they, themselves, are inca- 
pable. This is why the boy who can wiggle his 
ears or stand on his hands is always such a 
center of attraction. But since most of us de- 
sire our pupils' aims to be higher than this, we 
must supply them with more exalted examples 
of conduct. 

''Teach by example rather than by precept'' 
is an old adage, and a true one. Instead of 
preaching to children concerning their duty to- 
ward God and their neighbor, let them learn 
from biographies of great men what really con- 
stitutes greatness. Thus, by the example of 
those who have gone before, they may be them- 
selves led *'to strive, to seek, to find, but not 
to yield." 

119 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

Since it is claimed that children reproduce in 
their own lives all the stages of development 
through which the human race has passed, it 
follows that they will have different interests 
at different ages. The age of barbarism, which 
is not long passed the kindergarten, delights in 
warfare; therefore the soldier's biography may 
first be introduced. 

But let us not be misunderstood in this. The 
soldier 's biography is not, as many seem to think, 
a record of battle, murder, and sudden death. 
The actual warfare need be little touched upon, 
for it is the character of the man, his patriotism 
and devotion to duty which are to be studied, 
and not his record of slaughter. 

Eggleston realized this when he wrote his 
''Stories of Great Americans for Little Ameri- 
cans," a book which may be used with success 
in the third grade. It is to be regretted that the 
literary style is not better, for the abrupt, jerky 
sentences are a barrier to good reading, but as 
biographies of a simple and direct type, they are 
ideal. It will be noticed that in his stories of 
Putnam, Marion, Wayne, and similar fighting 
heroes, he has said little of the warfare, but has 
sought always to emphasize the bravery, nobil- 
ity and patriotism of the men who fought for 
liberty. 

120 



BIOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 

But the interest in military heroes does not 
slacken for some time after passing the third 
grade. In later years Abbott's biographies will 
be of interest, particularly those of Alexander, 
Julius Caesar, and Alfred the Great. It is scarce- 
ly necessary to call attention to the value of these 
books historically; in fact, all biography must 
be largely historical in its nature. 

At about the fifth and sixth grades the con- 
structive tendency begins to manifest itself. 
Now take up accounts of some of the inventors. 
Howe and his sewing machine, Whitney and the 
cotton gin, Morse, Bell, Fulton, Stevenson; all 
these will be of interest. Franklin is so com- 
posite a character that he belongs in many 
groups. His inventive faculties only need be 
studied at this time, as other characteristics may 
be developed later. 

Lives of explorers such as Boone, Pike, Fre- 
mont, Stanley, Livingstone, and Cook should be 
studied in these grades also. Lead the children 
to see and appreciate the service these men 
wrought for mankind by blazing their way into 
unexplored countries. Livingstone's life is an 
especially valuable one, and Blakie's *' Personal 
Life of Livingstone ' ' should be in every library. 

A pupil once said to the writer, *'I like to 
read about poor boys who work their way up.'' 

121 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

He voiced opinions of a good many children of 
the same age, no doubt. (He was thirteen.) 
Since this is true, we can do no better than 
introduce pupils of the upper grammar grades 
to two of our master minds, Franklin and Lin- 
coln. The former's life is best studied from his 
own account, which is received with enthusiasm 
by both seventh and eighth grades, while Lin- 
coln's career has been set forth in numberless 
books suited for almost every grade. The man- 
ner in which these two men toiled up from pov- 
erty is a powerful lesson for every boy who 
shall study it. 

We prefer to leave to those grades extended 
study of these two men in order that their splen- 
did statesmanship may be studied and appre- 
ciated. Of course these distinctions and divi- 
sions are by no means arbitrary. We do not con- 
tend that pupils should be told nothing of these 
men until they come to the seventh or eighth 
grades. On the contrary, they should be taught 
to know and love the names of our country's 
heroes from their earliest years, whether they 
be heroes of peace or war. But the gigantic skill 
with which Franklin and Lincoln helped to steer 
the ship of state through stormy seas can not 
be clearly explained to primary children, nor 
would the record interest them if it were told. 

122 



BIOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 

For this reason it is better to keep the full ac- 
count for the older grades. 

Nothing has been said so far of the biogra- 
phies of authors. We are always rather sorry to 
see third grade pupils laboriously reproducing 
the biography of Longfellow, especially as they 
are usually called upon to repeat the perform- 
ance in each succeeding grade. Lives of writers 
do not possess nearly so many features of inter- 
est as other types we have named, and had best 
be kept for more mature grades. 

Since the place which any study obtains in 
the curriculum is determined by its value, it is 
well to consider the benefits which may be de- 
rived from a study of biography. Dr. Samuel 
Smiles, whose own life, by the way, may be 
studied with profit, says in his splendid book, 
''Character:'* 

"The great lesson of Biography is to show 
what man can be and do at his best. A noble 
life fairly put on record acts as an inspiration 
to others. It exhibits what life is capable of be- 
ing made. It refreshes our spirit, encourages 
our hopes, gives us new strength and courage 
and faith — faith in others as well as ourselves. 
It stimulates our aspirations, rouses us to action, 
and incites us to become copartners with them 
in their work. To live with such men in their 

123 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

biographies, and to be inspired by their exam- 
ple, is to live with the best of men and to mix 
in the best of company.'' 

And Longfellow expressed the same thought 
when he said : 

** Lives of great men all remind us 
We can make our lives sublime, 
And, departing, leave behind us 
foot-prints on the sands of time/' 



124 



The Art of Story-Telling and 
Its Uses in the School-room 

BY MIZPAH S. GREENE 



THE ART OF STORY-TELLING AND ITS 
USES IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM 

As soon as the average child is old enough to 
read, literature of various kinds is before him, 
and he has the pleasure and privilege of read- 
ing to his heart's content. If his reading is 
carefully selected and rightly directed, it will 
prove a most valuable means of personal benefit 
and education to him. But altho reading mat- 
ter, adapted to the years and understanding of 
the particular child, is so abundant, and chil- 
dren have so many opportunities of reading 
for themselves, the useful art of story-telling 
must not be overlooked or neglected, for much 
may be gained from a story told in a bright, in- 
teresting manner, which could not be received 
in any other way. It makes the story seem more 
real and vital to the child, more a part of his 
own life. It comes to him through the medium 
of the living voice and is thus a living message 
to him. It is presented perhaps with numerous 
gestures and apt illustrations, which hold his 
attention and arouse his ever active imagination. 
It is accompanied by a pleasant smile, or a look 
and accent of sadness, delight, surprise, dismay, 

127 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

fright or excitement, as the occasion may de- 
mand, which makes him feel, sympathize, and 
act with the characters the story portrays, and 
learn the lessons which they teach, I have 
known many a child, during my years of expe- 
rience as a public school teacher, who has been 
led to noble, unselfish action through the influ- 
ence of some story character. I remember one 
dear little fellow in particular who willingly 
and gladly gave his last cherished dime to pay 
his younger brother's street-car fare to a school 
picnic, because he was anxious to be like *' Brave 
Tom" in the bright, cheery little story I had 
told the children only the day before. Another 
child in the same room gave up the use of ciga- 
rettes because some story character was too 
manly to use them. 

A story fascinates a child when it portrays 
for him the wonderful and the strange, the mi- 
raculous and the dramatic, for which he has a 
natural love, since they appeal to his imagina- 
tion. The mind of a child is filled with strange 
fancies and images; they are a part of himself 
and often prove an inspiration to him. It is 
the duty and privilege of the wise teacher to di- 
rect many of these fancies into the right chan- 
nels and make them a source of benefit to the 
child mind. She can often find no better way 

128 



STORY TELLING AND ITS USES 

than through the medium of a good story. A 
child's knowledge and experience are very lim- 
ited. A helpful story, appropriate to his years 
and understanding, told in an entertaining man- 
ner, and in language which he can understand, 
will provide for him new thoughts and experi- 
ences to treasure up in his active little mind, 
and use in the days to come. 

The child mind has a tendency to create ideals, 
and the story may furnish the right kind of ma- 
terial to develop this tendency, bringing the 
imagination again into play and turning the 
thoughts into new and pleasing channels. The 
ideal may not be the one in the mind of the 
story-teller, but it is none the less valuable to 
him, and tends to make his life fuller and 
richer. 

A story to be interesting to children must be 
true to life. The characters the child finds in 
real life must not be lacking in the story. He 
wants something more than the child-life in his 
story to make it appeal to his idea of life, as he 
finds it. He has a tender, loving father and 
mother; his story-child must be helped and 
blessed in the same way. Perhaps he listens to 
his favorite stories at his grandma's knee; must 
there not be a dear old grandma in the life of 
his story friends? A dear little boy has lost 

129 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

the father he loved with all the strength of his 
young heart. As he climbs on his mother's knee 
for his evening story, he asks pleadingly, ' ' Mam- 
ma, mamma! tell me about the poor little boy, 
in the long, long time ago, who didn't have any 
papa." The little lad in the story had many 
wonderful experiences, which could never come 
to him, but they had one common link which 
made the story-boy very dear to the real boy. 

I once asked a large class of primary children 
to tell me a story about a picture of two little 
girls that I held up before them. A thoughtful 
little maiden said anxiously, ''But, teacher, 
where are the papa and mamma ? ' ' The picture 
just as it was contained no story for her. 

One reason why the story arouses so much in- 
terest in the mind of a child is because it pre- 
sents events to him in wholes. Thus, he is not 
satisfied with parts of stories ; the beginning, the 
middle, or the end alone, but he insists upon 
hearing the complete story. A usually attentive 
little girl showed her evident discontent and lack 
of interest, while her Sabbath-school teacher was 
telling, in an interesting manner, the story of 
David and Goliath. The child's dissatisfaction 
was so plainly shown that at length the teacher 
asked a little impatiently, ''What is the mat- 
ter, Anna? Don't you like to hear all about 

130 



STORY TELLING AND ITS USES 

brave David and how he conquered the terrible 
giant?" "You didn't tell us about David as 
a little boy, and how he grew to be so strong 
and brave/' was the child's reply, followed by 
a shower of tears. 

Another reason why stories are so attractive 
to the child, is because they often take him far 
back to the happenings of the past. Children 
are always interested in hearing about things 
that took place "a long, long time ago," or 
"In the long ago time," and his favorite begin- 
ning for a story is, ' * Once upon a time. ' ' 

A good story leads from the known to the re- 
lated unknown. The child always delights in 
matching what he already knows with the new 
ideas and experiences that the story brings to 
him. With each helpful and entertaining story 
to which he listens, his knowledge is increased, 
and therefore his mind is broadened and en- 
riched. The story develops the mind naturally 
and normally. The knowledge and helpful influ- 
ence are not forced upon him, but gradually, day 
by day, become a part of himself. The story 
may remain with him for days and weeks, and 
even years, until, unconsciously, and without 
effort he has imbibed the truths and lessons the 
story aims to impart to him. From the story 
characters who are brave and honest and true, 

131 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

the same traits may enter into the mind and 
life of the child. 

Children like to hear a story which strongly 
appeals to them, told over and over again, and 
each time it seems to mean more to them than 
ever before. The brave boy seems braver, the 
giant stronger, the deed more wonderful, each 
time the story is repeated. A wise teacher will 
rarely refuse to repeat a good story when the 
children request it, for in addition to the pleas- 
ure she is thus giving them, she may be impress- 
ing upon them by this repetition lessons which 
will influence for good their after lives. The 
real end and aim of all story-telling should in- 
deed be character-building, and stories which 
tend to this result can not be too often repeated, 
as long as they appeal to the child's interest. 

A good story for children must have plenty 
of action and progressive movement. Children 
like to have things happen and ' ' happen quick. ' ' 
They want their story characters to be in mo- 
tion; to be accomplishing something. They are 
not interested in long-drawn-out tales, with long, 
complicated sentences, and prosy descriptions; 
but bright, spicy, animated stories, full of spon- 
taneous life and action, with a great predomi- 
nance of narrative over the descriptive. 

No story should be presented even to children, 

132 



STOEY TELLING AND ITS USES 

and perhaps I should say, least of all to chil- 
dren, unless it has a well defined and carefully 
worked out plot or plan, leading naturally and 
easily from one incident to another; gradually 
unfolding itself step by step, until at last its 
winding up shall be the probable consequence 
of all that has gone before. 

The language and ^laterial of the story should 
be characterized by perfect purity of thought 
and expression, and through all and in all, a 
true Christian spirit. It should form a point 
of contact with the child's life, guiding his 
thoughts naturally, until he is able to grasp the 
great truths and problems of life. With such a 
story one may hope not only to interest and in- 
struct the child, but to make him a worthy rep- 
resentative of the race in every respect. 

Finally I would impress upon all parents and 
teachers the inestimable importance of the art 
of story-telling, not only in the school-room but 
in the home and in all the haunts of childhood. 
I would urge upon all who are instrumental in 
the training of children, to make every possible 
effort to make their choice of stories and method 
of story- telling ideal ; realizing that the real pur- 
pose of the story is not merely to give the chil- 
dren pleasure, altho that is of importance, but 
to become an essential factor in mind-training 
and character-building. 

133 



Nature Studies — The Various 
Methods of Teaching Nature 

BY CAROLINE C. LEIGHTON 



NATURE STUDIES — THE VARIOUS METH- 
ODS OF TEACHING NATURE 

My first experience in attempting to interest 
children in the study of nature was to send them 
into the school garden, and the neighboring 
woods, to see how many different shapes of 
leaves they could collect. They returned with 
many-lobed oak leaves, finely-cleft silver maple, 
ribbon-like willow, broad plantain and heart- 
shaped lilac leaves. I asked if they noticed any 
other respect in which these leaves differed from 
each other besides in form, and they pointed out 
the serrated edges of the rose leaves and the 
smooth ones of the lily, the glossy surface of the 
white birch leaves and the woolly mullein. We 
then turned the leaves over and saw the network 
of veins so conspicuous in the maple, and the few 
parallel ones in the com blade and the plantain. 

I next directed them to a deep cut on the 
railroad, where some granitic rocks were freshly 
exposed, and pointed out in the specimens they 
showed me the glistening scales of mica, the red- 
dish crystals of feldspar, the transparent quartz 
and black specks of hornblende. It was fasci- 
nating to them to search for varieties of rock. 
A serpentine quarry in the neighborhood fur- 

137 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

nished fine specimens, sometimes streaked with 
silvery asbestos, or sparkling with little specks 
of sulphuret of iron, ' ' the fool 's gold. ' ' 

Some of the boys, who belonged to a manual 
training class, made a cabinet to contain the 
specimens. The girls, not to be outdone, col- 
lected money to buy a microscope. 

Not far distant from us flowed a sluggish lit- 
tle brook, the home of the ogre-like larvae of the 
dragon fly, water newts, caddis worms, bear- 
ing their curious stone houses on their backs, 
snails protruding their inquisitive-looking horns, 
whirligigs and skippers. Here was a good chance 
to study transformations, both of insect and rep- 
tile life. The pretty orange and black caddis 
flies, that live but a day or two, hovered over 
the water, and many varieties of gossamer- 
winged creatures that had passed their youth 
in the black ooze. 

Occasionally we spent an hour dissecting an 
insect or plant, in pressing and preparing flow- 
ers for the herbarium, or in arranging insects 
in drawers lined with cork. We were never at 
a loss for material. If there was nothing else 
before us there was at least the gutter, where 
often some charming little weed could be found, 
the spurry sandwort, the starry chickweed, or 
scarlet pimpernel, the poor man's weather-glass, 

138 



NATURE STUDIES 

as interesting in their structure as any of the 
more pretentious plants. 

In the rambles which I took with them, the 
boys equipped themselves with geologists' ham- 
mers, the girls with butterfly nets. They be- 
came quite skilful in the use of the nets and in 
mounting the specimens. As I watched them at 
their work I thought they could not but observe 
what a vast deal of ingenuity had been lavished 
upon these ephemeral creatures, with their ex- 
quisite decorations, and I felt as if it must give 
them a new idea of a wonderfully painstaking 
and beauty-loving Creator. 

Every season furnished us with something to 
study. In the winter, provided with pieces of 
black velvet, we caught the snow crystals, noticed 
their beautiful and varied forms, and were some- 
what successful in drawing the simpler ones. 

In the early spring we gathered buds from 
the trees, observed the tarpaulin coats, which 
guarded some of them from too much rain, and 
the downy coverings which shielded them from 
frosts, noticed how skilfully they were plaited 
and folded to pack them in smallest compass, 
watched the ferns uncoiling, and every little 
moss in the woods stretching itself, doffing its 
night-cap and casting off the swaddling clothes, 
which had protected it through the winter. 

139 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

In autumn came the cocoon harvest, when all 
bushes and fences were searched for moth cra- 
dles, to be carefully preserved and watched 
through the winter. We examined the minute 
flowers of the grasses, the microscope sometimes 
resolving what was utterly insignificant and un- 
noticeable to the naked eye, into a perfect little 
lily, of such delicate form and color that it 
seemed as if it must have come out of fairyland. 

Autumn was the time to inspect seed-vessels, 
especially with the help of the microscope, to see 
how prettily they were sometimes ornamented 
with dotted geometrical designs, and the varied 
forms of the caskets in which they were stored 
and in how many different ways seeds are scat- 
tered — fine hooks for grasping, little wings, as in 
the maple and ash, thistle-down and dandelion- 
silk floating on the breeze ! 

Our first year's work was quite desultory, but 
the second year we formed ourselves into a nat- 
ural history society, with departments presided 
over by curators, and the children kept note- 
books, recording their observations. Once a 
month these notes were read in school, in place 
of the ordinary compositions, and were listened 
to with much interest, especially the queries, 
some of them suggested by the teacher, others by 
the pupil, I having found by experience the 

140 



NATURE STUDIES 

truth of the old idea of Socrates, ''Ask any one 
a question rather than state a fact to him, if 
you would arouse his interest. ' ' 

A pine twig called out the question, ''Why 
has the pine only needle-like leaves ? ' ' Can you 
think of any reason why these leaves should be 
better adapted to it than more expanded ones, 
of a softer texture ? Why is its bark rough and 
shaggy? What is its native home, and how do 
these peculiarities adapt it to the situations most 
congenial to it? Which of our trees are natur- 
ally mountain trees? Why are the leaves that 
first appear on many plants close to the ground 
— the root-leaves — quite different from the later 
ones, higher up on the stem? See the rosettes 
of the evening primrose for an illustration. 

You have often been cautioned in transplant- 
ing anything to be especially careful not to cut 
off the ends of the roots. Do you know why? 
It is because the root-tip selects the food of the 
plant from the soil. It is, as Darwin says, the 
brain of the plant. You may have noticed that 
the rootlets are sometimes very long and strag- 
gling. This is because they have had so far to 
travel in searching for proper food or water. 

I have often wondered why the butterfly 
should die directly after depositing her eggs. 
Many humble mothers in the insect world are 

141 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

very attentive to their young. The earwig sits 
upon her eggs, and eagerly watches her brood, 
the wolf-spider carries her innumerable pro- 
geny about on her body. I am afraid it would 
be altogether inconsistent with the butterfly's 
gay nature to be waiting upon little caterpillars. 

Who originated the idea of the Zoological 
Garden ? It may have been Solomon, for we are 
told that the ships that brought him every three 
years treasures from Tarshish of gold and sil- 
ver and ivory, brought also apes and peacocks. 
We know that he was a close observer of nature 
from his remarks on many animals, being deeply 
impressed by the wisdom of the ant * ' which hav- 
ing no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her 
meat in summer and gathereth her food in the 
harvest. There be four things," he says, "which 
are little upon the earth, but they are exceed- 
ingly wise. The ants are a people not strong, 
yet they prepare their meat in the summer. The 
conies are but a feeble folk, yet make their 
houses in the rocks. The locusts have no king, 
yet they go forth all of them by bands. The 
spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in 
kings' palaces." 

Sometimes by way of impressing them with 
the practical value of nature study I read items 
from the newspapers, or reports of the Agricul- 

142 



NATURE STUDIES 

tural Experiment Stations for instance, with 
regard to the ravages of the insect pests, brown- 
tail and gypsy moth, and the parasites, the Tach- 
ina flies, just arriving from Japan, that are ex- 
pected to destroy them in the larval state, by de- 
positing their eggs upon them. The coddling 
moth, the chief enemy of the apple tree, will find 
in the seedless apple that science drives him to 
other modes of obtaining a livelihood. The seed- 
less apple, being propagated only by cuttings, 
has but a small insignificant flower, without 
scent or color, with no attraction for insects. 

Current events in the natural world were also 
noted, as the success of the Australian experi- 
ment of cultivating clover by importing long- 
tongued humble bees to fertilize the flowers. 
When clover was first introduced into Australia 
it grew luxuriantly, showing that the climate was 
adapted to it, but it was soon discovered that it 
did not seed and seemed likely to become a fail- 
ure until it was observed that the bees never 
emerged from a blossom dusted over with pol- 
len, as they should have done, and by examina- 
tion it was found that their tongues were too 
short to penetrate the deep tubes of the flower. 
Since the long-tongued bees have been intro- 
duced, clover has become one of the richest crops 
of the country. 

143 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

One day I asked if any of the class could 
draw, from memory, a butterfly resting on a 
twig. I asked this question in order to see how 
many of them had observed that the butterfly 
always holds its wings erect in resting. Some 
of them represented it with wide-spread, others 
with slanting wings; only one with the wings 
erect. I asked if they could think of any rea- 
son why the butterfly should take this attitude, 
and they noticed that only the under side of 
the wings showed and that this was often mot- 
tled, grey and brown, while the upper was bril- 
liantly colored. The butterfly would attract 
much less notice, and escape its enemies in this 
way. This led to my speaking to them of other 
protective devices and colorings, as in the atti- 
tude which some caterpillars take when at rest, 
clinging to their support with the hind part of 
the body, and lifting and bending the forepart, 
in this position remaining immovable and hardly 
to be distinguished from a twig. The little leaf- 
hoppers, at rest, might readily pass for knobs 
or excrescences on the trees. 

Hearing the shrill cry of a locust, some one 
asked, "How does it make that sharp sound?'' 
I explained his little violin, the strings being 
made by the projecting veins of his wing-cov- 
ers and the bow being his hind legs. The cricket 

144 



NATURE STUDIES 

clashes cymbals together, made by his wing cov- 
ers. The grasshopper has a little drum on his 
back. With insects only the males are musical. 
The females have no musical instruments, but 
carry working tools. Most of our simple tools 
were in use by insects long before they were 
known to us. The saw-fly is a carpenter, mak- 
ing holes in the leaves with a kind of combina- 
tion tool, saw and file together. It is to be found 
in a deep chink under the hind part of her 
body. She makes little slits with it in the stems 
and leaves of plants, and drops her eggs into 
them. You may find her on an oak tree. Do 
not mistake her for a hornet, which she much 
resembles. 

Do you remember the little puffy, woolly ball, 
looking like a tiny pincushion, white, dotted with 
crimson, we found once on an oak leaf, and I 
told you it was called 'Hhe pincushion gall." 
This growth on the leaf was caused by a saw- 
fly having pierced it to deposit her eggs, that 
the little grubs might feed on the sap. 

The mud-wasp is a mason and plasters her 
clay cells against the wall. Each one has in it 
a single egg and a great many living spiders, so 
liberally does she provide fresh food for her 
incipient children. The stump-wasp puts into 
her nest hundreds of horse-flies. 

145 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

The female wood-wasp has a borer in a scab- 
bard. It is like an awl. With it she bores holes 
into the trunks of trees. Look for her on a 
pine or fir tree. She might be taken for a wild 
bee. The borer is like a pointed bristle. Some- 
times she drives it with such force into a tree 
that she can not pull it out, but remains fast- 
ened to the tree. 

I gave them brief accounts of some enthusias- 
tic naturalists, hoping to awaken a desire to 
know more of them, as the blind Huber who, 
with the help of an assistant, made such won- 
derful discoveries about bees; the German bot- 
anist Eprengel, who, noticing the hairs on a 
wild geranium leaf, first asked, *'Is any pur- 
pose answered by them?" that question lead- 
ing finally to the knowledge that every stripe, 
spot and variation of structure has a meaning; 
Sir John Lubbock, whose knowledge of ants is 
so intimate that he confidently looks forward to 
the time when he will be able to communicate 
with them; Luther Burbank, the California 
wizard, who has evolved the fadeless flower, and 
whose latest achievement has been to convert 
the prickly pear of the desert into an edible 
plant, furnishing food suitable for man and 
beast. 

My chief aim was to awaken in the children 

146 



NATURE STUDIES 

the idea of looking about for themselves, with 
their eyes always open for anything interesting. 
Sometimes we happened upon a truly novel 
sight, as when we saw the larvae of the golden 
tortoise beetles with their tails turned up over 
their backs on a hot day, as if to shield them 
from the sun. We could hardly believe our 
eyes, it was such a droll sight, so we sent a few 
specimens to a learned professor in an Agri- 
cultural college, asking his views of their curi- 
ous structure. He answered, ''I do not know 
that anything has been positively ascertained 
in regard to it, unless their tails are used as 
parasols ! ' ' 

One day we opened the big green pod of the 
milkweed, and saw inside the semblance of a lit- 
tle silver fish, covered with brown scales, made 
by the combined seeds. We had seen the droop- 
ing clusters of the flowers, but never dreamed 
of what was going on later under the green cov- 
ering, how every flower was depositing its scale, 
with the silken thread, exactly in the right place 
to help fashion this curious little image. It 
was a lesson in nature's orderly ways, not soon 
to be forgotten. 

With regard to birds and little animals, I 
early seized upon the opportunity to instil into 
their minds the idea of its being much more 

147 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

delightful to study them alive, in their own 
haunts, than in the old-fashioned way, to shoot 
and stuff them, and told them of the Oswego boy 
who calls the birds to come to him by imitating 
their notes. 

On the whole, my experience in trying to in- 
terest children in the study of nature has been 
that it is far easier to teach them from living 
objects than from books, and of immeasurably 
greater value. 



lis 



The Teaching of Phonetics 



BY ZYLPHA EASTMAN 



THE TEACHING OF PHONETICS 

In teaching phonetics, we must have at least 
three objects in view, namely: to teach the 
sounds of the letters, that the children may be- 
come independent readers, to correct errors in 
speech, and to form the habit of articulating 
distinctly. 

Many children, on first entering school, bring 
with them more or less *'baby talk," which has 
clung to them partly because the mothers have 
been too busy or too thoughtless to correct them ; 
partly because it is considered cunning, and 
partly because they are expected to ** outgrow" 
it when they start to school. Many children 
have similar sounds, such as e, % a, interchanged 
sometimes on account of not being able to dis- 
tinguish between the sounds; sometimes on ac- 
count of parents having a careless habit of 
speech, and slurring sounds or cutting them 
short. Many children of foreign parentage 
miscall words in everyday use. A greater num- 
ber than we might at first thought suppose, mis- 
pronounce on account of informed teeth, lips, 
and mouth. 

Since it is the duty of the teacher to correct 

151 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

these errors, she should carefully note the errors 
of each child's speech, ascertaining as nearly as 
possible the cause of incorrect pronunciation in 
each case. Perhaps I can give a better idea of 
what I mean by mentioning a few examples that 
have come under my observation. A certain boy 
who had been in mischief all the morning tickled 
his little seatmate in the side, and made him 
laugh in school. The teacher sent him upstairs, 
where he reported that ''Mitt Willit tent him 
up tairs for tittling a boy in the tide.'' This 
child, like many others, had great trouble mak- 
ing the sound of ''s," — why, I have never been 
able to tell. By having the child watch care- 
fully while he made the sound, and by showing 
him how to place teeth and tongue, this child 
was taught to pronounce words having the let- 
ter "s." Another example was of a child who 
gave the sound of '*w" in place of ''s," — the 
only case of the kind I have ever known. He 
called his playmate Sam, '*Wam" and, being 
sent to the store for a sack of salt, asked for a 
' ' wack of wait. ' ' This child had shed his upper 
front teeth and, perhaps, for that reason he 
got no nearer the correct pronunciation than 
''thack of thalt." A little girl wrote on the 
board such sentences as ''This is the book at I 
had." "Mamma said it I could go." Both mis- 

152 



PHONETICS 

takes were the result of indistinct pronunciation 
on the part of the parents. Another child could 
not pronounce **s," hard c, hard g, long i, (call- 
ing even the pronoun I, a, or f ; in fact he made 
so many mistakes that he found it almost impos- 
sible to make himself understood. This child 
had a very peculiar mouth and teeth, making 
it very difficult for him to make them take the 
correct position for uttering the sounds. 

It is not unusual to find in a primary grade 
of forty pupils, three, four, or even five, who 
need special work along this line. For this rea- 
son, if for no other, the phonetic work should 
be introduced as early as possible in the school- 
work — certainly during the first month of 
school. At this age the children are always 
ready for a game of some sort, and will readily 
try to imitate any sound given by the teacher. 
They are also wholly unconscious of what you 
are trying to do, and you may, without any 
fear of embarrassing the sensitive child, pick 
out pupils who are in need of special attention, 
giving them extra drill on their weak points. 

Such work may be given very early, but the 
picking out of new words by sound should not 
be done too soon, as too much attention is then 
given to word-getting, drawing the mind away 
from thought-getting. Let the child learn to 

153 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

read by the word method, or by a combination 
of the word and sentence methods, and grad- 
ually introduce the phonetic work in such a 
way that it will help, and not in any way be 
a hindrance to, him. This can be done if we 
do not get impatient for results. We must for- 
ever keep in mind that thought-getting, not 
word-getting, is what we want, and that the 
learning of the sounds is only an aid, not the 
object in view. 

Let us now turn our attention to the methods 
of teaching phonetics. We see a great many lit- 
tle devices, most of which are good. We are 
quite familiar with the story of the child on the 
farm, who heard the geese say **th," "th,'* the 
cross dog say ''r-r-r," the angry cat say *'f-f," 
the hot iron say ' * s-s " when put in water, etc. ; 
a being the sound the baby makes; b, water 
pouring out of a jug ; c, fish-bone in your throat ; 
d, the dove sound; e, the deaf man's question; 
h, the tired sound ; 1, sound heard near the tele- 
graph pole; m, the cow's call; n, the calf's 
answer ; p, the puffing of the engine ; t, the tick- 
ing of the watch; w, the wind sound; z, the 
bee; ch, the baby sneezing; sh, the keep quiet 
sound ; wh, blowing out the light. 

The method which I have found most suc- 
cessful in my own work is as follows: After 

154 



PHONETICS 

the pupils are familiar with a good many words, 
and can read short sentences, write a number 
of familiar words — bat, ball, chair, baby; for 
example, ask some one to bring you the b-a-t, 
taking pains to give a natural pronunciation, 
the b-a-11, etc. When the children can respond 
readily, turn to the board and write slowly the 
word **bat," pronouncing each letter as you 
make it. You will probably find the children 
pronouncing with you. After much drill on 
familiar words, let them note the number of 
sounds in each word. The pupils will, by this 
time, very readily see the connection between 
the letters and the sounds, and will have ac- 
quired the knowledge in an easy, natural way. 
I have found that using the above method for 
foundation work, with the story of the sounds, 
for varying the work and keeping up the inter- 
est brings good results. Many object to the use 
of diacritical marks in the first grade, but I 
have found marking the long and short sounds 
of the vowels a very great help, when given as 
we find need for them. 



155 



The Value of Word-Study and 
How to Direct it 



BY E. S. GERHARD 



THE VALUE OF WORD-STUDY AND HOW 
TO DIRECT IT 

''Who is this that darkeneth counsel hj words without 
knowledge?"— Job 38: 2. 

Nothing seems more familiar and is so little 
understood ; nothing is more interesting and is so 
little known ; nothing seems so insignificant and 
is so powerful; nothing is used more lavishly 
and frequently with so little effect, as words. 
The American people have justly been accused 
of having little linguistic pride ; there is a hasty 
unconcern in their speech ; the haste is a national 
characteristic, while the unconcern arises from 
a feeling of lazy indifference and a lack of am- 
bition and of worthy ideals. People in general 
give too little heed to a proper use of words. It 
is painful to hear how some of the common, pure, 
sturdy words are mutilated, like **dump'' and 
''stupid," ''party'' and "person;'' and people 
who misuse these words very likely commit the 
still more unpardonable sin of qualifying every 
statement they make with "nice," "awful," and 
"lovely," the three lonely adjectives in their 
meager vocabulary. Such a corruption of lan- 
guage arises either from innocent ignorance, lazy 
indifference, or affected knowledge. In either 

159 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

case, a study of words might correct their igno- 
rance, remove their indifference, and shame 
their affectation. 

It is by means of language that we share the 
lives of other nations and profit by their exam- 
ple. It is through language that we enter into 
the inheritance of the past with its treasures of 
human knowledge, the discoveries of science and 
the achievements of art. Surely it is worth 
while to study the mechanism of such a vehicle 
of expression as language, and especially of 
such a composite language as the English, which 
has borrowed words from every quarter of the 
globe and has an unparralleled power of assimi- 
lation. 

Language indicates the life and character of 
a people; it reflects their history and mental 
habit. The study of words will often reveal his- 
tory not recorded by language itself. It will 
disclose secrets which would otherwise have been 
lost forever. That demand is creative, is a prin- 
ciple that holds true in language as well as in 
economics. The horseless carriage, which made 
its first appearance about fifteen years ago, seems 
to persist in retaining its questionable name of 
** automobile;'* and with it have risen the still 
more questionable term **autoist*' and *' motor- 
ist." So the presence, or absence, of a certain 

160 



WORD-STUDY 

word in the historic languages of the Indo-Euro- 
pean races is of valuable significance. These 
races surely had no words for things that they 
did not possess. When one finds that they have 
common words for the domestic animals, ' ' dog, ' ' 
*'ox," *' horse,'' one may conclude that the ob- 
ject was familiar to all the races, provided it 
can be shown that they did not at a later period 
borrow such words from one another. The in- 
ference would then be, that these tribes must 
have left the hunting and fishing stages of their 
life and taken to grazing cattle before they mi- 
grated. What a world of history is wrapped up 
in the words "heathen," "pagan," and "mati- 
nee," and in many others. History may be dis- 
torted and falsified by words, but the history 
which lies latent in a word is not to be per- 
verted. "Murder will out." One of the rich- 
est sources of historical knowledge is the study 
of words. Philology has done much to further 
the cause of history and of knowledge in gen- 
eral. It is very likely that some of the most 
perplexing problems in history, if they are to 
be solved at all, will be solved by a study of 
words. 

One of the most interesting and amusing as 
well as the most profitable studies of words is 
etymology; it will give the student the history, 

161 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

biography, and primary meaning of words. 
What a history many of them have. Take the 
word ** cheap;" none is more common or used 
more frequently, yet very few people know the 
change the word has undergone in its meaning. 
Originally it meant a market place where things 
are bought and sold. It still retains this mean- 
ing in the word ''chapman," a merchant. The 
original meaning is also retained in the proper 
names "Cheapside" and "Eastcheap," at one 
time the great market places of London, the his- 
tory of whose trade is brought up at the men- 
tion of these names. "Pecuniary" and "fee" 
tell us of "ye olden time" when the tribes in 
the immense forests of Germany in their barter 
used cattle as a medium of exchange. And long 
after the sand in the arena has ceased to be 
stained with human blood from gladiatorial com- 
bats, and long after cordage has ceased to creak 
on vessels in the naval battles of the Romans, 
we are told that this or that man has distin- 
guished himself in the arena of debate or on the 
rostrum. People are said to be capricious and 
scrupulous; that is, they are in certain respects 
like goats, and that they may have grains of 
sand in their shoes. Thus the penetrating study 
of etymology will finally bring us to the point 
where all language becomes figurative. 

162 



WORD-STUDY 

This study of the origin of words secures an 
accurate and enlarged vocabulary. Word-study 
increases one 's vocabulary and with this increase 
there will be a growth of thought-power. The 
power of observation will become greater and 
that of expression freer. A small vocabulary 
indicates a narrow range of thought. No two 
things are more closely related than poverty of 
words and poverty of thought. The individual 
has just as many words as he has thoughts. A 
limited number of words at one's command in- 
dicates a narrow range of thought; it also ham- 
pers expression. If the same word is repeated 
continually the language becomes monotonous 
and wearisome. A vocabulary may be very 
simple, but its variety will charm the reader be- 
cause of its novelty. No one need expect to be- 
come a successful writer or speaker without hav- 
ing command of a large vocabulary. It gives 
variety to style because it enables the writer to 
select the proper words to express his thought. 
Irving 's description of Hell Gate is a fine illus- 
tration of this statement. A rich vocabulary 
means a wealth of thought, a variety of expres- 
sion, and the ability to understand correctly 
those who use many words to express their 
meaning. 

The definitions of logic are disputed and vari- 

163 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

ous; whatever the definition may be it resolves 
itself in the last analysis to a definition of words 
and terms. And upon the definition of words 
and terms depends the whole system of knowl- 
edge. A man 's knowledge is limited by the num- 
ber of words he understands. It is impossible 
to impart to a man knowledge of a subject if he 
does not understand the words which contain 
that information. And he who does not know 
the meaning of words does not know anything. 
Whatever we think or do turns on their mean- 
ing. Many of the quarrels and disputes the 
world over arise from a misunderstanding of 
words. The great theological and ecclesiastical 
disputes of the Middle Ages were nothing more 
than verbal quibblings; yet what persecutions 
and tortures followed in their wake. The basis 
of a good education can be formed only with 
words well chosen, carefully arranged, and 
firmly fixed in the mind. 

No language is richer in synonyms than the 
English. There is hardly a language from 
which the English has not borrowed some form 
of expression; and because of this composite 
character it is very rich in synonyms. For this 
reason the English language has the distinction 
of expressing every shade of thought and feel- 
ing. These synonyms also give the language a 

164 



WOKD-STUDY 

freedom and variety, a beauty and effectiveness 
of expression which would be impossible with- 
out a large assortment of words kindred in 
meaning but distinct in use. Nothing will show 
the accomplished writer or speaker to a better 
advantage than a fine discrimination in the 
choice and use of words. Style is after all noth- 
ing more than the finding of the right word for 
the right idea. The charm of Gray's ''Elegy'* 
and of Whittier's ''Snow-Bound," and of many 
more masterpieces of literature depends upon 
the effectiveness, suggestiveness, and exactitude 
of expression. This is just what a study of 
words will impart to the student, if it is pur- 
sued in the right attitude of mind. The use 
of apt words is the secret of the successful and 
effective writer. 

It has been said that a man is known by the 
company he keeps and by the books he reads; 
with equal emphasis it may be said that he is 
known by the language he uses. A man's lan- 
guage reflects his character; in fact, it reflects 
the man himself without any regard for what 
he says. "By thy words thou shalt be justified 
and by thy words thou shalt be condemned." 
One unfailing index of a person's knowledge, of 
his acquaintance with literature and the best 
thought of the world is his vocabulary; it like- 

165 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

wise indicates his mental habit and power of 
discrimination. A man's language is a better 
measure of his culture than his manners are. 
Whoever has acquired a command of the mother 
tongue has attained the highest discipline and 
culture. This command of language embodies 
that growth of mental development and esthetic 
feeling which sees in all things the true, the 
beautiful, and the good, and developes a taste 
for the eternal fitness of things. 

The study of words fs a subject deserving of 
more attention and effort than what is usually 
bestowed upon it. Want of time, inadequate 
knowledge on the part of the teacher, and a 
feeling of apathy on that of the pupils, are some 
of the things which have to do with the neglect 
of this important topic of study. The teacher 
who would direct word-study must be well read ; 
and above all, he must be a student of lan- 
guages. No language is a dead language unless 
it is killed in the teaching. He must be a scholar 
in the strict, technical sense of that term. He 
also needs the keenest power of discrimination 
so that he may be able to distinguish the finest 
shades of meaning, different forms and words, 
as well as appreciate the niceties of speech with 
all their delicacy and precision. These are 
among the essentials of education and culture. 

1G6 



WORD-STUDY 

From what other teacher may the pupil be ex- 
pected to acquire a taste for the fine things em- 
bodied in words? To direct word-study prop- 
erly is to direct the student toward that which 
will enable him to find more pleasure and profit 
than anything else in the whole curriculum of 
education. 

This is the day of dictionaries and reference 
books. There are several first-class dictionaries ; 
they all have some prominent, distinguishing 
features which make them almost indispensable 
and invaluable. To urge the study of the dic- 
tionary may seem preposterous; yet pupils 
should be familiar with a few of these diction- 
aries, if with not all of them. Of all the com- 
mendable habits to be formed at school none 
deserves more encouragement than the habit of 
* ' looking-up " what you do not know. The 
teacher who can direct and inspire his pupils 
to develop this habit bestows upon them some- 
thing that will be of inestimable value to them 
in later years. They ought to use the dictionary 
with frequency and ease. They should be sent 
to it whenever a question arises in regard to the 
meaning of a word until they have formed the 
habit of challenging every word whose meaning 
is not clear. Too many pupils are not familiar 



167 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

enough with +he dictionary to know its full value 
as an aid to English composition. 

Word-study should also be directed toward 
an increase of vocabulary. A good systematic 
use of the dictionary will be a real help in in- 
creasing it. Another good plan is to keep a note- 
book for the express purpose of recording a few 
new words each day. To add two or three to 
one's vocabulary every day may seem a very in- 
significant number, but it means several thous- 
and during the high-school period. These new 
words should be followed by as many definitions 
as the pupil is able to formulate for himself, 
and then he should resort to the dictionary for 
any others. But a vocabulary is not fully one's 
own until one knows how to use the words cor- 
rectly. Pupils should therefore be expected to 
use the newly acquired words in sentences to 
show that they understand their use. 

Another place where the note-book is almost 
indispensable is in* reading the English classics. 
In this note-book should be entered all words 
whose meaning and connotation are not clear, 
and whose history and etymology are interesting 
and important. This does not mean that the 
beauty and literary charm of the selection read 
should be mutilated by turning it into a gram- 



168 



WORD-STUDY 

mar exercise or into a treatise on etymology ; but 
if the definition of a word or the grammatical 
structure of a sentence is not known, the only 
thing to do is to find it out. And why not ? Does 
it spoil the effect of the selection to discover the 
hidden meaning and suggestiveness of some par- 
ticular words? These words should be selected 
beforehand by the teacher for the next day's 
recitation. It may be necessary for the teacher 
to make frequent inspections of the note-books 
to see that the proper entries are made. 

Etymology may be made a formal study by 
the use of some textbook. If not, much valuable 
work of the kind can be accomplished in other 
subjects of study. It is a trite saying that every 
recitation should be a recitation in English, but 
English needs to be emphasized in every recita- 
tion, whether in physics, geometery, or geogra- 
phy. A search for the etymology, history and 
primary meaning of many words and terms will 
often be more helpful, and the results more eas- 
ily retained than a formulated definition, e. g., 
of **atom," ** capillarity,'' *' hydrostatics," '* pe- 
ninsula," ** arctic," ** equilateral. " Latin is 
taught in all high schools and where etymology 
is not a separate study fruitful and profitable 
work can be done while studying the Latin, both 



169 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

in finding English derivatives and in observing 
the discriminations in the meaning of the Latin 
words themselves; for this latter purpose there 
is no better Latin author than Cicero. In the 
beginning Latin class one lesson a week should 
be devoted to the study of the etymology of the 
words derived from the Latin words found dur- 
ing the week. The same plan may be followed 
in the second year Latin class. In the succeeding 
two years it may not be so necessary to have 
special recitations on words. 

There yet remains the subject of synonyms; 
no study will repay anyone better. Every school 
library should have a few volumes of synonyms. 
Crabb's ** Synonyms" is a good old standard. 
A book of more recent date and better suited 
for practical purposes is Fernald 's * ' Synonyms. ' * 
The questions and exercises in the second part 
of the book afford excellent practise. But the 
best textbook is the one the student makes for 
himself by gathering the words from his mem- 
ory or dictionary, and from his reading. Glance 
down a page of Macaulay's Essay on Milton and 
you will find such words as ** reverence/* '* dex- 
terous," *' convert," "commemorate;" all of 
these are fruitful in synonjrms. A method sim- 
ilar to the one suggested for the study of ety- 
mology may be adopted. Words should be as- 

170 



WORD-STUDY 

signed and the pupils should be asked to find 
synonyms and to construct sentences illustrat- 
ing their correct use. All in all the student will 
be benefited most by putting into actual use the 
words he studies. 



171 



The Educational Influence and 
Value of Manual Training 



BY BURTON M. BALCH 



THE EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE AND 
VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING 

Not long since the writer heard a mother, who 
was bringing up a family in a remote and thinly- 
populated county of the state of New York, ex- 
press regret that the life there afforded such 
narrow opportunity for ** school education." 
This woman was not versed in modern pedagog- 
ical literature ; yet the emphasis placed upon the 
word ** school" showed plainly that her good 
sense recognized the fact that ''school" or 
**book" education was not the only kind. Again 
the good old-fashioned phrase, "book larnin' " 
contains for us, and evidently contained for the 
generation that used it so frequently, a very 
palatable reference to some kind of ''larnin' " 
that was not "book." The old schoolmasters, 
or some of them at least, did not think that these 
homely sources of education could be organized 
and harmonized with school life; tho even in 
those days there were some who did not agree 
with the conservative schoolmen. In his essay 
on New England Reformers, published in 1844, 
Emerson very emphatically called attention to 
the one-sided nature of an education whose sub- 

175 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

ject-matter from first to last was words, and 
words only. In 1883 Charles Francis Adams, 
Jr., of Harvard, and George S. Merriam, of 
Yale, joined the protest, voiced by Emerson. 
Each of these scholars bore public testimony be- 
fore his Alma Mater to the effect that his edu- 
cation had been sadly deficient in the training 
of the perceptive faculties. And so the recipi- 
ents of what was then and is now regarded as 
the highest culture, and the men and women who 
could lay claim only to common sense, were prac- 
tically agreed upon the proposition that a part, 
at least, of one's education should be obtained 
from other sources than books. 

On the other hand, one of the distinguishing 
marks of modern progress in educational en- 
deavor is the employment of those agencies for 
the development of youth referred to by impli- 
cation in the phrase, ''book larninV* of which 
agencies not the least is manual training. 

But no criticism should be passed upon the 
old schoolmasters. Education is so vital a thing ; 
so closely connected with life, if it be not life 
itself, that changes and reforms in its practise 
are only modifications made to fit new conditions 
of living. In the homes of our grandfathers in 
both town and country, where all the children 
under one roof observed and participated in 

176 



MANUAL TRAINING 

many of the occupations of life, there may have 
been no need for manual training. But child- 
life in the modern city flat is different. So con- 
venient is the baker, the delicatessen shop, the 
cheap restaurant, that very little is seen of even 
the commonest household occupations, and noth- 
ing at all of such employments as spinning, weav- 
ing, soap-making, preparation of milk products, 
and scores of others in which every child fifty 
years ago played an important part. In any 
consideration of the necessity of manual train- 
ing, therefore, these two sociological phenomena 
must be taken into account: first, the difference 
in modes of life that has resulted from mechan- 
ical inventions and improved means of transpor- 
tation and distribution ; second, the fact that our 
population is becoming urban — much of it in 
residence and nearly all in ideals and manners 
of life. These conditions may not be ideal. The 
modern home may be shirking some of its obvi- 
ous duties, but the education of the young can 
not be enforced in the home, and so there is de- 
manded of the school to-day that peculiar service 
which to a degree the city home used to afford, 
but which now-a-days even in unpretentious 
country homes is rarely to be obtained. To meet 
a part of this demand is the function of manual 
training. 

177 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

What, then, is the influence and value of man- 
ual training, whether obtained in home or school, 
and what definite educational values does it pos- 
sess? In the first place let us consider what it 
is not and some things it does not do. It is not 
a panacea (which word I use for want of a bet- 
ter) for all the mental ills of childhood. It won't 
make dull pupils bright nor lazy ones active, 
tho it may serve in either case for the fulcrum 
of the lever interest. It is only one of many 
factors whose product is development. In other 
words, any course which sought to make it the 
principal part of the curriculum would fail woe- 
fully in its attempt to adjust its pupils to their 
environment. Witness the country boy who can 
do things with his hands but can find in no other 
way that graceful self-expression which is so 
necessary to happiness and success. 

Manual training does not prepare young chil- 
dren to use tools effectively enough to warrant 
their employment as artisans, tho it should in- 
spire them with a great respect for the master 
craftsman and arouse laudable ambitions in the 
directions of the crafts. Indeed, if ever the 
skill of the workman should be obtained by the 
pupil the particular exercise wherein it is 
achieved loses its educational value and the child 
should be started on the way to get skill in a 

178 



MANUAL TRAINING 

new one. One must crave pardon for a reference 
to the meager education of the man who has 
become an expert at pegging heels on shoes or 
running the machine that does it. 

Manual training does not give much instruc- 
tion except in connection with other studies. 
It does make vital and therefore interesting 
many subjects which are otherwise wearisome 
to some pupils. For example, if a class engaged 
in communal work makes a model of a water- 
shed or a planetarium, what a flood of light is 
thrown upon the geography lesson? 

Manual training does not make a good center 
for concentration. It should be incidental and 
subsidiary to the arithmetic and language lesson. 
It affords, to be sure, a considerable field for the 
practise of measurement and computation; but 
the child should be well grounded in principles 
before he is allowed to apply them in the man- 
ual training lesson. Otherwise he may make un- 
necessary mistakes resulting in the waste of ma- 
terial and thus defeating one of the ends which 
the teacher of the subject should have in view, 
the development of habits of careful economy. 
In the same way accurate verbal descriptions of 
operations and objects are of value, very much 
as are rigid statements of proof in demonstra- 
tive geometry; but the teacher should make 

179 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

sure that the child is able to give them before 
requiring him to do so. Otherwise habits of in- 
accurate and careless statements may be formed. 
In fine, the teacher should not attempt to use 
manual training as a means of direct instruc- 
tion in other subjects. Considerable stress has 
been laid upon this point in view of the claims 
made for manual training by the builders of 
some educational Utopias. 

So much for what manual training does not 
do, tho a desire to be accurate has made neces- 
sary the statement of many ways in which it is 
of value. A good negative is likely to be a pro- 
mise of a good positive. If there are certain 
things that men or methods confessedly can not 
do, there are usually other things they can effec- 
tively accomplish. In stating the case for man- 
ual training, an attempt will be made to avoid 
the anti-climax. 

The recreation and relaxation obtained in the 
shop are considerable factors in its importance 
and factors upon which it is unnecessary to en- 
large. The implications of the words, recrea- 
tion and relaxation, are sufficient and apparent 
even to the uninitiated. * ' Rest without idleness ' ' 
are the suggestive words of one writer. 

In the schoolroom the training in muscular co- 
ordination, which results in dexterity and should 
180 



MANUAL TRAINING 

result in a degree of ambi-dexterity, is organized 
with a useful end in view. In the school yard 
the boys play among other sports the time-hon- 
ored game of mumble the peg, which name re- 
fers to the penalty imposed upon the boy who 
is beaten at throwing a knife into the ground 
from a variety of positions. In the school-room 
his occupation is a miniature of life — activity 
with a useful end in view. In the yard it is pleas- 
ure for himself. The first is altruistic ; the second 
egoistic. Both are good for developing skill. 
Whittling with the knife has the added advan- 
tage of a tangible result when the work is done, 
tho this be only a willow whistle. The effect then 
upon the physical make-up of the child is two- 
fold ; recreative and developing. While the brain 
is resting the hand and eye are being trained. 

It has been said elsewhere that manual train- 
ing does not give instruction, and with this state- 
ment what follows may not seem consistent. 
It does not give much direct instruction, and to 
impart knowledge is in no way its raison d'etre. 
However, any course in manual training that 
does not give the pupil both ideas and ideals is 
a failure; ideas of the use of tools, of the na- 
ture, adaptability, and strength of materials and 
somewhat of their value in money, of the com- 
mon devices in joining woods, and in simple tex- 

181 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

tile arts, of the necessity of co-operating with 
one's fellows if good work is to result; ideals of 
neatness, accuracy, truthfulness, economy and 
helpfulness. Then, too, there is no greater trib- 
utary to the stream of interest than curiosity. 
What is so well designed to arouse this as an 
occupation that makes necessary actual hand- 
ling of materials gleaned from various parts of 
the earth? By whom were they gathered and 
how? By whom shipped and how? The ques- 
tions that arise are legion. So manual training 
may link with the work-a-day world geography, 
history, government, language, and other sub- 
jects that often seem to the mind of a child re- 
mote from any practical use. It may make 
another lesson real and vital and therefore in- 
teresting. 

Handicraft consists in making something with 
the hand to conform to a preconceived mental 
picture. The excellence of the product depends 
upon two things: the excellence of the model, 
and the faithfulness with which it is followed. 
The former is the manifestation of a more or 
less clever constructive imagination; the latter 
very largely of minute observation and fidelity 
to what is observed. In advanced classes even 
in elementary schools pupils are taught first to 
create their mental pictures, then to make their 

182 



MANUAL TRAINING 

working models or drawings, and finally to fol- 
low their models. Some of the results obtained 
in the grades in New York city, which are in 
no way exceptional, as shown in the educational 
exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition, speak more 
eloquently for the training in imagination, obser- 
vation and execution given by manual training 
than can the pen of its most ardent advocate. 

The ability to form sound judgments is cer- 
tainly an important desideratum in education. 
How often do we hear the complaint * ' He knows 
nothing but books." The judgments by which 
we regulate the ordinary affairs of life are not 
formed as a rule by literary references. A dis- 
tinguished teacher of Greek once fell from his 
bicycle, and in falling turned the front wheel 
around. He pushed his bicycle home, a distance 
of some four miles, because he did not have 
enough mechanical sense to turn the wheel back. 
If he could have acquired in school the ability 
to make as good a judgment in mechanical mat- 
ters as it is required to recognize in an aorist 
participle the first Greek form from which it 
is derived, he would have been spared much hu- 
miliation in addition to a long walk on a hot day. 

But important as are the physical and in- 
tellectual aspects of the development to be ob- 
tained by instruction in the manual arts, they 

183 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

are far less worthy of consideration than the 
ethical values. Let us regard ethics as applica- 
ble to modes of thought as well as to direction 
of action. The tendency to-day among the young 
people of urban environment is to look down 
upon manual occupations. The school course 
is very likely to divert the energies of the work- 
man's son away from the channel in which the 
employment of those energies would be most 
remunerative to him and useful to society. Very 
often, too, does the hauty possessor of wealth 
scorn the practitioners of those homely arts who 
make it possible for him to enjoy his patrimony. 
It is claimed by its advocates, and with reason, 
that instruction in manual arts will restore to 
the crafts that place of dignity and honor which 
is theirs by right of age and service. It may 
avert the struggle, which some prophets see ap- 
proaching, between capital and labor. 

From the lowest to the highest grades the self- 
activity of the child should be allowed range 
and freedom. The teacher may suggest, expose, 
explain; never direct. Thus through the exer- 
cise of self-activity, very likely over-baffled ef- 
fort and discouraging experiment, the child 
achieves one of the essentials of character, self- 
reliance. 

As Dr. Adler points out, impulsive and desul- 

184 



MANUAL TRAINING 

tory volitions are characteristics of the criminal 
classes, and the wills of children are of this na- 
ture, which observation may form a rational 
basis for the somewhat outworn theory of orig- 
inal depravity. Only by the process of educa- 
tion does the will become the servant instead of 
master. One of the most effective agencies in 
will development is manual training. Here the 
child has to reach an end some distance off, the 
attainment of which requires patient, persistent, 
organized effort. The road to this goal is en- 
livened by interest, and many a child that balks 
at the idea of reaching an end through books 
will follow with delight the path hedged by 
motor activities. And so it learns to plan and 
work and wait to reach the port of heart's desire. 
These are some of the educational values of 
manual training. The same pertain to other 
subjects when taught by the genuine teacher; 
but no other subject connects lessons intellec- 
tual so closely with life ; no other so well serves 
a great purpose of education, to adjust to the 
complex industrial practical life of to-day in 
which the paramount economic principle is di- 
vision of labor, the simple creature of God's 
making, known as the child. 



185 



How Best to Acquaint Pupils 

With What is Going on 

in the World 

BY JOHN M. VAN DYKE 



HOW BEST TO ACQUAINT PUPILS WITH 
WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE WORLD 

This is the most fascinating of all subjects to 
teach ; so, at least, has it been to the writer dur- 
ing his years as a teacher in private and pub- 
lic schools, both graded and ungraded; a sub- 
ject that was apt to interject itself constantly 
into every branch of study that he taught in 
the school room, a hobby that had to be curbed, 
and all teachers must learn to curb their pet 
hobbies. Yet the necessity of teaching syste- 
matically the world's current events does not 
seem to be recognized by pedagogy; for, upon 
how many schools can one put his mind's finger, 
in which a certain period, however short, is set 
apart for the special study of these matters, or 
where it is introduced into general class work in 
other than the most perfunctory manner? 

Not being willing to give up his hobby alto- 
gether, and never having in the school room suf- 
ficient time at his disposal to give a full study- 
period to the subject, the waiter, early in his 
work as a teacher, cast about him for a plan, a 
device, a means, by which his pupils, small as 
well as large, might obtain a reasonable knowl- 

189 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

edge of what was going on in the world from day 
to day. 

Much, it was evident, could be taught in the 
various class recitations, particularly those in 
civics, history, and geography. But this did 
not go far enough. The ground was not cov- 
ered as the teacher wished it to be. Could not 
something additional be devised by which the 
important events that were daily happening 
might be brought forcibly to the attention of 
each and every pupil in the room from the 
youngest to the oldest, and that without taking 
up too much time? As an answer to this 
question, the writer devised and used in his 
school work what he called ''The Daily Bulle- 
tin Board." It was a novelty in school work; 
indeed, so much of a novelty that its use is 
unknown in pedagogics. Yet from the first day 
of its birth in the writer's school room it was 
an unqualified success ; and it always was a suc- 
cess, no matter whether used in the graded room 
of high-class work, or in the undergraded coun- 
try school. May the writer briefly explain his 
method ? 

One of the blackboards should be set apart 
permanently for the work. In the modern 
school room there is generally abundant black- 
board space, sufficient at least to allow one board 

190 



WHAT IS GOING ON 

for the purpose. If not, a roll-blackboard can 
be bought cheaply; or one constructed of slate 
cloth on a light folding frame. Let that one 
board be used for no other purpose. It is the 
school 's * ' Daily Bulletin Board. ' ' Each scholar 
has his right, title, and interest in and to its 
surface. Upon it are to go the world's events 
of the preceding day. Whatever has been going 
on in the world that is of general public interest 
may find a place on its surface. Each scholar 
is invited to furnish the **news," and to have 
put down, in few words, what he or she deems 
to be of the most importance. 

Since, if possible, the items are to be written 
on the board outside of school hours — before the 
opening of school in the morning, or at recess, 
or at the noon hour — at first few may respond, 
and the teacher may have to assign two or 
three of the more willing and advanced pupils 
to do the work. But this will not be for long. If 
there are two pupils who have items for the 
board to-day, there will be four to-morrow, while 
the close of the week will, in all probability, 
witness a dozen struggling for space for their 
''news." The board has already become too 
small. There will have to be an ''editor." This 
high and honorable position will be filled by the 
larger pupils, selected from those whom the 

191 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

teacher judges worthy by reason of good schol- 
arship and general ability. Let it be a high 
honor to be a member of the * ' Editorial Corps. ' ' 
From this corps an editor is chosen each week. 
If he or she be a poor blackboard writer, an as- 
sistant may be appointed to do the manual work 
of writing. Or, the teacher himself may think 
it best to be the editor; in fact, if he does not 
have advanced pupils, he will probably have to 
take general supervision of the news. In all 
cases, he will have to furnish the guiding hand, 
and keep the board up to his high level, and his 
suggestions and advice will be more or less nec- 
essary all the time. 

What shall go on the board ? At first, perhaps, 
everything that is submitted by the pupils. This 
state of affairs, however, will soon end. There 
will be an abundance and an overflowing abun- 
dance. Of course, the great events that are hap- 
pening throughout the world will have the right 
of way. But room should be found also for what 
is going on in the county, and even at times in 
the township and the immediate neighborhood. 
The daily events connected with the war with 
Spain had the call for prominence in 1898. 
Lately the war between Japan and Eussia called 
for its daily space. But war is at an end — for 
the present — and it is as well for the board that 

192 



WHAT IS GOING ON 

it is SO; for there are many matters of impor- 
tance other than war demanding every square 
inch of its surface. 

As illustrations, from the great roster of 
events might be named the following: The 
opening of Congress; important proceedings in 
Congress ; the same in the State " Legislature ; 
Cuban independence; the St. Louis Exposition; 
the Lewis and Clark Expedition; the Panama 
Canal ; the deaths of noted personages, as Queen 
Victoria, President McKinley, William M. Ev- 
arts, Gladstone, Kruger, Verestchagin, Maurus 
Jokai, Abram S. Hewitt ; the coal strike ; the Bal- 
timore fire; the discovery of the body of John 
Paul Jones ; the separation of Norway and Swe- 
den; the Chinese boycott; the late eclipse of the 
sun; the county fair; the fall election; the late 
great storms in the West ; the railroad wreck near 
town; the finding of an Indian stone-hatchet 
and Indian arrowheads by Mr. Smith in the field 
above the schoolhouse; the first robin; and — 
Tommy, of the sturdy leg, solemn visage, and 
seven birthdays, hands up his slip of paper: 
*'My Angora cat has 4 kittens." This will have 
to go on the board, because Tommy has his space 
and he must not be disappointed; besides. An- 
gora kittens are rare birds in this section of the 
nation, and are therefore worthy of mention. 

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SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

The board should be completed each day by 
the close of the noon hour. At some convenient 
time during the afternoon session, the teacher 
will devote fifteen minutes, or even ten minutes, 
to going over with the whole school the events 
as they appear on the board, calling attention 
to their geographical and historical relations, to 
their importance to mankind in general, and to 
their interest to the immediate community or 
even to the school itself. He will ask a few 
questions if he thinks proper ; and it may often 
be advisable to assign subjects to some of the 
scholars to look up and report upon the mor- 
row — but not too much of this. The teacher 
will also call the attention of the school to those 
important events that have been omitted from 
the board. For the board's duty is to bring 
out the scholars — it is their board — and hence 
the teacher may find it best to give no aid what- 
ever in furnishing the matter for it; his only 
office being to select the best that is offered, and 
to reserve his criticisms for the few minutes 
given to him in the afternoon. 

In placing the news on the board the editor 
will need to acquire the art of brief expression ; 
following closely the style of the headlines as 
found in the daily newspaper. 

On Friday afternoons, or once a week, there 

194 



WHAT IS GOING ON 

should be a general review of the week's chief 
events. This review should be in the form of 
questions and answers, and should be made a 
regular lesson as near as practicable. 

A last question will arise : How can the pupil 
obtain the items, the news, that he is to provide 
for the board? The writer never found any 
trouble on this score. Hardly a scholar but 
has access to a daily newspaper, morning or eve- 
ning edition, or at least to a tri-weekly. The 
teacher is surely a subscriber to some daily, 
which will be useless on the morrow, and which 
he will be glad to hand over to his pupils. Then, 
there are the parents — the home folks — upon 
whom it will do no harm to turn loose the in- 
quiring mind. If the pupil once becomes inter- 
ested in the subject, there will be no end to the 
energy with which he will browse around for 
news. Not all will do it 1 Certainly not ; surely 
not. But there will be enough and to spare. As 
has been said, the trouble will be not a dearth, 
but an overflow. 

It must not be understood, however, that the 
** Daily Bulletin Board" was devised as the 
sole recourse for giving instruction in the world's 
current events, or as a substitute for teaching 
them in the regular class recitations. There is 
hardly a subject taught in any school curriculum 

195 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

that does not offer constant opportunities for 
bringing the subject forcibly to the pupil's mind 
and attention, opportunities for which the 
teacher should be constantly watching, and 
which he should use freely. 

Civics, history, and geography are the chief 
studies that bring them oftenest and most prom- 
inently to view. But they are not alone. A few 
e. g. 's will show how numerous are the teacher's 
opportunities. 

In geography: The recent discovery of the 
great natural bridges in Utah ; the camphor pro- 
duction and market, greatly affected by the 
war between Japan and Eussia; the war itself; 
the return of Fiala from the north; the depar- 
ture of Peary for the north. In Physics: The 
"X" Ray (electricity); the airship (asronaut- 
ics) ; the danger that is menacing Niagara (hy- 
drostatics). In composition and rhetoric: The 
spelling reform; the new style of omitting per- 
iods and other marks of punctuation at the end 
of titles, etc. ; the admission or the banishment 
of a new word. In physiology: The mosquito 
and the yellow fever. In civics: The recent 
exposures in the government service in connec- 
tion with the publication of cotton statistics; 
the selling of advance information concerning 
crops to certain speculators; the election of 

196 



WHAT IS GOING ON 

Mayor Dunne of Chicago, and its relation to 
public ownership of franchises; railroad re- 
bates; the beef trust. In mathematics: The 
late eclipse of the sun, with an explanation of 
the general method of calculating the distances 
between the celestial bodies (trigonometry). In 
bookkeeping: The troubles in insurance mat- 
ters, and the methods by which the business of 
great companies have been mismanaged — or, 
had we not better pass by all explanations by 
which books and accounts can be manipulated 
to show false accounts and statements? Is it 
ever well to aid the young mind in learning how 
to violate the laws of our land and still keep 
out of jail ? Is it not better never to let crimes, 
no matter how great they may be or how much 
space they may fill in the daily newspaper, come 
up for discussion in the schoolroom? Certainly 
they can not go on our * ' Daily Bulletin Board. ' ' 
But while the method of teaching the world's 
current events in class recitations has its value, 
and is, so far as the writer knows, the only one 
in general use, it has its objections and its de- 
fects. Chief of these is its lack of system — con- 
tinuity — order. It is not a regular subject, a 
regular study for the pupil to look forward to. 
His mind is not impressed : he is not interested. 
To-day he may learn much ; to-morrow nothing ; 

197 



SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 

and much is left out altogether. The observant 
teacher soon perceives that he is not covering 
the ground nor securing satisfactory results. 
Yet what remedy does he have? To form sepa- 
rate and special classes is clearly an impossi- 
bility. 

So, while in no way neglecting this method, 
while employing it to its fullest usefulness, we 
return to our device, our plan, our means, by 
which our pupils, small as well as large, may 
obtain a reasonable knowledge of this all-im- 
portant subject. 

Is the Daily Bulletin Board only theory? is 
it impracticable? No; it is not. Try it and see. 



198 



MAY 4 1906 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




007 871 514 5 



